Progressive growth deterioration in a context of nutritional transition: a case study from Vientiane (Lao PDR).

BACKGROUND: The high rates of rapid urban and economic growth occurring in Asia are bringing about parallel changes in both food consumption patterns and nutritional status. AIM: The aim of this study is to examine the impact of these changes on the nutritional and health status of mothers and their offspring in Vientiane, Lao PDR. METHODOLOGY: Over 2 consecutive years, a follow-up study of 150 infant-mother pairs living at three different levels of urbanization was performed in Vientiane. The mothers completed a questionnaire on their eating habits. Clinical examinations and anthropometric measurements were also carried out. RESULTS: The results showed that, in general, the dietary energy content was low (providing only 83% of the energy requirement) and there were deficiencies in calcium, vitamin A, Folate and iron. The main energy source was rice (providing 40.9%), while 40% of the protein provided by meat and fish provided 19.8%. The differences observed in the food contribution to energy intakes and in food diversity varied with the level of urbanization. The prevalence of stunting (13.9%; CI 10.0 ∼ 18.6%) was less than that reported at the country level. Stunting was related to age, the sex of the child and the mother's physique and varied according to the level of urbanization. CONCLUSION: The level of urbanization in Vientiane influences the pace of the ongoing process of nutritional transition.

Fat and muscle mass in different groups of pre-pubertal and pubertal rural children. Cross-cultural comparisons between Sahelian (rural Senegal) and Amazonian (Beni River, Bolivia) children.

BACKGROUND: An increase in fat accretion is essential for triggering the puberty spurt. Hence, nutritional constraints may influence puberty timing. AIM: To measure changes in fat and muscle mass in children living in natural environments but with different nutritional exposures. METHODS: Cross-comparisons of children from rural Senegal and lowland (Amazonian) Bolivia were carried out. Anthropometric measurements of stature, weight, four subcutaneous skin-folds (triceps, biceps, subscapular, supra-iliac) and arm circumference were made. Children were divided into two age groups (5-9.9-year-olds or 'pre pubescents' (n = 381) and 10-15-year-olds or 'pubescents' (n = 692)). RESULTS: Senegalese girls menstruated later than Bolivian girls and Senegalese boys also matured later than Bolivian boys. Bolivian children displayed more fat and muscle before puberty and during puberty than the Senegalese. They also had more fat deposited on the trunk. There were substantial differences in living conditions and nutritional patterns between both locations. In Senegal, nutritional stress is likely to appear early during in utero life and to persist throughout the growth period, including puberty. This leads to a deficit in fat accretion before and during puberty that is associated with a considerable delay in puberty occurrence. In Bolivia, such stress is far less severe. CONCLUSION: Variability in puberty should be analysed taking into account these differences.

Hair trace elements concentration to describe polymetallic mining waste exposure in Bolivian Altiplano.

Severe polymetallic contamination is frequently observed in the mining communities of Bolivian Altiplano. We evaluated hair trace elements concentrations at the population level to characterise exposure profile in different contexts of contact with mining and metallurgical pollution. We sampled 242 children aged 7 to 12 years in schools from five Oruro districts located in different contexts of potential contamination. Hair trace elements concentrations were measured using ICP-MS (Pb, As, Hg, Cd, Sb, Sn, Bi, Ag, Ni, Se, Cu, Cr, Mn, Co and Zn). We compared concentration according to school areas and gender. Concentrations were markedly different depending on school areas. Children from schools near industrial areas were far more exposed to non essential elements than children from downtown and suburban schools, as well as the rural school. The most concentrated non-essential element was Pb (geometric means (SD): 1.6 (1.3) µg/g in rural school; 2.0 (2.3) µg/g in suburban school; 2.3 (3.0) µg/g in downtown school; 14.1 (2.7) µg/g in the mine school and 21.2 (3.3) µg/g in the smelter school). Boys showed higher levels for all non-essential elements while girls had higher levels of Zn. Hair trace elements concentrations highlighted the heterogeneity of exposure profiles, identifying the most contaminated districts.

Fishing activity, health characteristics and mercury exposure of Amerindian women living alongside the Beni River (Amazonian Bolivia).

Populations in Bolivian Amazonia are exposed to mercury contamination through fish ingestion. A group of 170 Amerindian women living along the banks of the Beni River were examined in order to detect any adverse effects on their health consistent with the toxic effects of mercury. The mercury content of the women's hair (H-Hg) was used as the bio-indicator of mercury exposure. The women answered a 24-h food recall questionnaire on the frequency of their fish consumption. They also underwent a clinical examination with their weight, stature, hemoglobin concentration in blood, and blood pressure being recorded. Significant relationships were found between fishing practices, the frequency of fish consumption and H-Hg levels with mercury contaminated women (H-Hg>5µg/g) being more likely to present neurological abnormalities (paresthesia, static and dynamic imbalance, poor motor coordination) than non-contaminated women. No relationship was found between blood pressure and mercury levels. Women with higher H-Hg reported more infant deaths than did women with lower levels. A logistic regression analysis which included socio-cultural traits, fish consumption habits and health characteristics was performed in order to determine the risks of contamination. Contaminated women were more likely to belong to those communities pursuing traditional fishing activities; moreover these women tended to be younger and frailer than other. They also exhibited mild neurological abnormalities and reported more infant deaths. These findings should stimulate local communities to take preventive actions directed towards the more "traditional" and vulnerable groups of population.

A nutritional dilemma: fish consumption, mercury exposure and growth of children in Amazonian Bolivia.

To study associations between nutritional status and mercury exposure among communities of the Beni River. Cross-sectional survey of mothers and their children from 15 riverside Amerindian communities in the Beni River valley (Amazonian Bolivia). Hair mercury content (H-Hg) served as a bioindicator of mercury exposure. A total of 556 people were measured. Anthropometric indices of nutrition were calculated after measurements of stature, weight, arm circumference and subcutaneous fat folds. Indicators of lifestyle were collected: subsistence activity, fish consumption and ethnicity. The median of H-Hg was equal to 4.0 microg/g (CI 95%: 3.6 approximately 4.4). There existed a significant relationship between H-Hg and nutritional indices in 5- to 10-year-old children (F = 12.1; p < 0.0001) but not in other age groups. Fishing activity, fish consumption and ethnicity had an effect upon the variance of H-Hg. Positive relationships between nutritional status and H-Hg may be related to the high nutritional value of fish. Among women, the relationship between H-Hg and nutritional status was negative (F = 7.1; p < 0.001), but this disappeared when ethnicity and subsistence activity were taken into account. In these Amazonian communities, recommendations aimed at lowering fish consumption to prevent mercury exposure should be balanced against nutritional advantages conferred upon growing children.

Lifestyle and mercury contamination of Amerindian populations along the Beni river (lowland Bolivia).

The objective of this paper was to document mercury contamination of Amerindian populations living along the Beni River in Bolivia and to examine risk factors related to their lifestyle. A cross-sectional survey was performed among 15 communities on the flood plains of the Beni River at the foothills of the Andes. Hair mercury content (H-Hg) served as a bioindicator of mercury contamination. Mercury values were available for 556 people. Four indicators of lifestyle were analyzed: community accessibility, subsistence activity, fish consumption, and ethnicity (i.e., members of the Tacana or Ese Ejja ethnic group). The median of H-Hg was equal to 4.0 microg/g (95% CI [confidence interval] = 3.6-4.4). Approximately 86% of the subjects had H-Hg values lower than 10 microg/g. No significant differences existed in H-Hg between adult women and children, nor according to age group. Subjects belonging to the Ese Ejja ethnic group had higher H-Hg than subjects from the Tacanas ethnic group. Communities accessible only by canoe were more frequently contaminated than those accessible by road. Subjects who ate at least one serving of fish per day had higher H-Hg, and families who maintained substantial fishing activity were more strongly contaminated. Contamination levels were found to be low compared with other Amazonian studies. The most strongly affected groups, however, were those which preserved a traditional way of life and were the most economically and socially disadvantaged.

Patterns of daily activity and time spent in bed of adult women and adolescent and preadolescent girls from a rural community in Senegal, West Africa.

BACKGROUND: In rural Africa, women and adolescent girls sustain a high burden of domestic and agricultural tasks. This could result in energy imbalance and impair their nutritional status. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to investigate activity during the day and time spent in bed during the night for adult women and adolescent and preadolescent girls living in the same household. The hypothesis was that more prolonged physical inactivity and time spent in bed could be an efficient means for lowering energy expenditure and hence maintaining an adequate nutritional state. METHODS: Physical activity during the day was qualitatively recorded using 'spot observation' (Super 1989), and quantitatively using accelerometers. A total of 110 females--55 adult women, 45 adolescents and 10 preadolescents--were included in the study. Anthropometric measurements (weight, height and four subcutaneous skinfolds) served as indicators of nutritional status. RESULTS: Day-to-day reliability of accelerometry counts was acceptable (average intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.73). Differences in daytime activity varied according to age group. Adolescent and preadolescent girls had higher overall activities than adults (p < 0.01). Preadolescent girls went to bed earlier and for longer periods than adult women (p < 0.001). There existed significant relationships between time spent in bed and activity during the day in adult women but not in adolescent or preadolescent girls. A significant relationship between nutritional status and physical activity indices was observed in preadolescent and adolescent girls, but not in women. CONCLUSIONS: The findings partially support the hypothesis of some compensation of daytime activity by time spent in bed in adult women, but not in adolescent or preadolescent girls.

Fatness and overweight in women and children from riverine Amerindian communities of the Beni River (Bolivian Amazon).

Obesity is a worldwide public health problem impacting not only industrialized nations but also developing countries. The main objective of this paper was to analyze risk factors for overweight among Amerindian children and their mothers. Data were collected in 15 Amerindian riverside communities from the Beni River (Bolivia). The total sample was of 195 mothers and 452 children, 0-15 years of age. Information about family activity and dietary patterns was collected, and a clinical examination was performed. Stool samples were collected in children for parasitological screening. Anthropometric measurements, including weight, height, arm circumference, and four skinfolds, were taken. A bioelectrical impedance analysis was performed in mothers. In total, 12.2% (95% confidence interval (CI(95%)) 9.1-15.9%) of the children were considered overweight; less than 1% were overtly obese International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) criteria. Among their mothers, 35.3% (CI(95%), 28.7-42.5%) were overweight (BMI (weight/height (2)) >25 kg/m(2)), and 5% (CI(95%), 2.5-5.1%) were obese (BMI >30 kg/m(2)). BMI was moderately related to anthropometric indices of body composition in children, but was highly correlated with fatness in mothers. The risk of overweight was not associated with environmental factors in children. In mothers, there was a significant relationship between BMI, health status, and dietary diversity score. There was a moderate association in boys between fatness and the BMI of their mothers (R(2) = 0.12, P < 0.001), but not in girls. These findings suggest a trend toward accumulation of fat related to possible changes at the economic and agricultural levels, even in remote rural areas.

Preschool stunting, adolescent migration, catch-up growth, and adult height in young senegalese men and women of rural origin.

Available data on the long-term consequences of preschool stunting are scarce and conflicting. The objective of this study was to assess the amount of catch-up growth from preschool stunting and the effect of migration (change in environment) during adolescence. A cohort study from preschool age (1-5 y) to adulthood (18-23 y) was conducted among 2874 subjects born in a rural area of Senegal. The subjects were divided into 3 groups of preschool stunting: none, mild, and marked, with height-for-age Z-scores of >-1, -2 to -1, and <-2, respectively. At follow-up, the history of migration was recalled. Mean height was 161.3 cm for girls and 174.0 cm for boys (>/=20 y). Stunted subjects remained smaller than the others: the age-adjusted height deficit between the 2 extreme categories was 6.6 and 9.0 cm in girls and boys, respectively. However, their height increment from early childhood to adulthood differed (69.3, 70.5, and 72.0 cm, P = 0.0001, and 78.9, 80.0, and 80.3 cm, P < 0.01, for nonstunted, mildly stunted, and markedly stunted girls and boys, respectively). The duration of labor migration to the city was associated with height increment in girls only in a nonlinear relation (adjusted means: 67.2, 69.3, 67.4, and 67.7 cm for 4 groups of increasing duration, P < 0.01). In conclusion, Senegalese children caught up in height prior to adulthood, with the adult means approximately 2 cm below the WHO/NCHS reference. However, this global catch up did not reduce height differences between formerly stunted and nonstunted children to any greater extent and it was not enhanced by labor migration.

Nutritional status of Amerindian children from the Beni River (lowland Bolivia) as related to environmental, maternal and dietary factors.

OBJECTIVES: To report the nutritional status of children aged up to 15 years and their mothers living in a remote Amazonian area of Bolivia, and to study its main social, familial and maternal determinants. SETTING: Fifteen Beni River communities located at the foot of the Andes. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey of riverside populations. All childbearing mothers and their children in the 15 communities were examined. METHODS: Information on household production, dietary habits and demography was collected. Individual clinical, anthropometric and parasitological examinations were carried out. SUBJECTS: A total of 631 persons were examined: 171 mothers and 460 children and adolescents aged 0 to 15 years. RESULTS: There were no cases of severe wasting, but 41% of 0-5-year-olds and 36% of 5-10-year-olds were stunted. Among 346 stool specimens examined, 75% were positive for at least one helminth. Diversity of food and quality of diet were satisfactory in 54% of households, but 27% had low diversity scores. Mothers were lighter and shorter than those observed at the national level: 20% had height below 145 cm. Prevalence of anaemia (42%) was also higher. In pre-school children, multivariate analysis indicated a relationship between growth retardation and household factors such as dietary quality, ethnic group and clinical state, but not maternal anthropometry. In contrast, in school-age children and adolescents, growth retardation was related to maternal characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: Growth retardation appeared mainly during the weaning period and did not seem to improve thereafter. To ameliorate this situation, an effort should be made to prevent common parasitic and infectious diseases in young children. Follow-up of pregnant mothers during pregnancy and delivery also needs to be reinforced.

Reliable method to estimate characteristics of sleep and physical inactivity in free-living conditions using accelerometry.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to use a new method to assess the characteristics of sleep and diurnal physical inactivity in human beings by means of accelerometry, noninvasively and in free-living conditions. METHODS: Forty girls and 40 boys aged 13 to 15 years, randomly selected from rural Senegal, wore an accelerometer for a 72-hour period during the dry season in 1998 and 2000. An algorithm already tested in another study was used to objectively calculate the characteristics of sleep and physical inactivity from movement registration provided by accelerometry. RESULTS: Adolescent girls slept for a longer time and more quietly than adolescent boys (8 hours 45 minutes versus 8 hours 9 minutes). Girls were more inactive than boys (4 hours 23 minutes versus 2 hours 49 minutes). Reliability estimates of physical inactivity period measures were excellent (0.74 to 0.78), and those of sleep period and length measures were acceptable (0.45 to 0.61). Girls and boys had the same levels of reliability, except for sleep efficiency measures. CONCLUSIONS: These findings could be explained by the nature and sex division of habitual tasks within the community. The accelerometer is a valid and useful epidemiologic tool for measuring characteristics of sleep and physical inactivity in free-living conditions. This innovative tool opens new prospects in epidemiology and public health, especially in the worldwide epidemic of chronic diseases associated with physical inactivity and sleep disorders.

Longitudinal estimates of puberty timing in Senegalese adolescent girls.

This study aimed to assess the timing of sexual maturation (breast development and menarche occurrence) among sub-Saharan African adolescent girls from rural areas. In the framework of a longitudinal study of growth at puberty, the stages of pubertal development (Tanner classification) and menarche occurrence were recorded at intervals between 1995 and 2000 in a sample of 406 Senegalese adolescent girls from a rural area. Nutritional status was estimated during infancy, childhood, and adolescence within this sample, and body composition was estimated only during adolescence. At the beginning of the study (1995), the adolescent girls were 11.4 years old (SD = 0.6). At the end of the study, they were 16.5 years old (SD = 0.6). Median and quartile ages at entry into each maturity stage and its confidence limits were estimated by a lognormal parametric survival model. These adolescent girls were shorter and thinner than girls of the same age from developed countries. Median age at the onset of breast development was 12.6 years (95% CI = 12.5-12.8). Median age at the end of sexual maturation and median age at menarche were estimated respectively at 15.8 years (95% CI = 15.7-15.9) and 15.9 years (95% CI = 15.7-15.9). These adolescent girls were less mature than other adolescent girls of the same age from other developing countries. Their puberty was extremely delayed compared to that of adolescent girls of the same age from industrialized countries. Puberty in these Senegalese adolescent girls is delayed by about 3 years. This may be due to malnutrition, significant energy expenditure, and poor diet and living conditions, and possibly to genetic control.

Relationships between anthropometry, cardiorespiratory fitness indices and physical activity levels in different age and sex groups in rural Senegal (West Africa).

BACKGROUND: A high level of activity is commonplace in traditional subsistence societies. Physiological characteristics of individuals, including body composition and physical fitness, could be limiting factors when performing daily tasks. OBJECTIVES: The study investigated the relationships between cardiorespiratory fitness, nutritional status and physical activity patterns, so as to test the hypothesis that these relationships are less straightforward in children than in adults. STUDY DESIGN: Four different groups of individuals from rural Senegal were investigated: 99 10-13-year-old children of both sexes (11.1 +/- 1.5 years old) from two settings in Senegal (Lambaye and Podor), 43 adolescent girls (15.5 +/- 0.5 years), and 30 adult women (17-40 years). METHODS: Subjects undertook a step test, and anthropometric measurements were collected. Continuous heart rate (HR) monitoring was performed for 8-12 h. The flex-HR method was used to estimate levels of activity (per cent of time spent under or over the flex-HR). RESULTS: Ten to 13-year-old children and adolescent girls presented slight degrees of malnutrition. Adult women were apparently not nutritionally deprived. Differences in cardiorespiratory fitness were found among 10-13-year-old children, while adult women performed better than adolescent girls. Children from Lambaye had a higher level of activity than children from Podor. Similarly, adult women were more active than adolescent girls. No relationships were found between cardiorespiratory or anthropometric measurements and per cent of time spent above the flex-HR (> flex-HR) in 10-13-year-old children. In contrast, in adult women and adolescent girls, body composition and cardiorespiratory indices were significant predictors of activity levels. CONCLUSION: Our data support the hypothesis that activity levels are less dependent upon physiological characteristics in children than in adults in traditional subsistence societies.

Cross-cultural comparison of growth, maturation and adiposity indices of two contrasting adolescent populations in rural Senegal (West Africa) and Martinique (Caribbean).

OBJECTIVES: To stress the importance of social and environment (nutritional) factors in determining the growth spurt during puberty and the risk of excessive adiposity, two contrasting adolescent populations, one from a rural area of Senegal (West Africa) and the other from Martinique (French West Indies), were compared. DESIGN: Cross-cultural comparison of contrasting populations. Adolescents from Senegal belonged to a cohort followed up since 1995. Adolescents from Martinique participated in a cross-sectional nutritional survey that covered the entire island. SUBJECTS: A total of 507 adolescents (mean age: 14.3+/-0.7 years) from Senegal (319 girls and 188 boys) and 703 adolescents from Martinique (351 boys and 352 girls) were surveyed. RESULTS: Differences in growth and maturation were striking: boys in Martinique were 22.7 kg heavier and 20.1 cm taller than boys in Senegal. Differences were less important for girls but still evident: 12.6 kg in weight and 10.5 cm in stature. In Senegal, there were virtually no overweight adolescents, but 18% of girls and 50% of boys could be considered as malnourished. In Martinique, 19% of girls and 23% of boys were overweight or obese. Adolescent girls from Martinique were also sexually more mature than adolescent girls from Senegal. When comparisons were repeated after Senegalese girls reached menarche, differences in weight and body mass index disappeared, but Senegalese girls were still shorter than girls from Martinique. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescents are extremely susceptible to nutritional changes and their particular situation needs to be incorporated into nutritional prevention programmes.

Impact of the health and living conditions of migrant and non-migrant Senegalese adolescent girls on their nutritional status and growth.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the living conditions of Senegalese adolescent girls according to their migration status, and to define the main socio-economic and biological determinants of their nutritional and growth status. DESIGN: Health and living conditions, sexual maturation, and nutritional and growth status of adolescent girls were determined within the framework of a longitudinal study on growth. SETTINGS: The capital city of Senegal (Dakar) and a rural community (Niakhar), 120 km south-east of Dakar. SUBJECTS: Three hundred and thirty-one girls, 14.5-16.6 years of age, were recruited from the same villages. Thirty-six per cent of the sample remained in the villages to attend school and/or to help with household subsistence tasks (non-migrants). The remaining (64%) migrated to cities to work as maids (migrants) and lived in two different socio-economic environments: at the home of a guardian during the night and in the house of the employer during the daytime. RESULTS: Family rural environment and guardian and employer urban environments were socio-economically different (P < 0.001). Living conditions in urban areas were better than in rural areas and the employer's environment was socio-economically more favourable. Migrants had more advanced sexual maturation and higher body mass index (BMI), fat mass index (FMI) and mid-upper arm circumference than non-migrants. However, migrants were smaller than non-migrants. BMI, FMI and weight-for-age were related to socio-economic levels and duration of migration. Schooling was positively related to height and negatively related to BMI. CONCLUSIONS: Migrants enjoyed better living conditions than non-migrants. This could be partly due to the better socio-economic environment of the employer. It was associated with earlier puberty and better nutritional status, but not with a better growth.

Physical fitness and body composition in relation to physical activity in prepubescent Senegalese children.

Relationships among estimated body composition, habitual physical activity, and physical fitness were considered in Senegalese children 8.5-13.5 years of age. Anthropometric dimensions (arm and calf circumferences, trunk, and extremity skinfolds, body mass index), four motor performances (dash, standing long jump, throw, grip strength), a step-test (cardiorespiratory fitness), and heart rate (HR) monitoring (physical activity) were collected in 140 children (66 boys and 74 girls). Age and sex had a major effect on indicators of body composition and physical fitness. Height stunting used as an indicator of chronic undernutrition had a remarkable effect on body composition but only a limited influence on physical fitness. Physical activity, represented by percentage of time above the flex-HR (%fHR), did not vary with sex, age, and nutritional status. However, there was a low-to-moderate correlation between %fHR and several body composition indices, grip strength, and cardiorespiratory fitness. Comparisons of children in the upper and lower quartiles of %fHR indicated that better indices of body composition in boys, and better strength and cardiorespiratory fitness in girls were positively associated with a higher level of physical activity. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 10:385-396, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Physical activity patterns and anthropometric changes in Senegalese women observed over a complete seasonal cycle.

This study describes the habitual physical activity of a group of women in Northern Senegal who are involved in a hydroagricultural development program and assesses its consequences for their nutritional status. A group of 30 women was followed on three occasions during a complete agricultural cycle. At each visit, activities were observed and timed over periods of 3 and 2 consecutive days. Anthropometric dimensions were taken at each visit, with a follow-up 1 year later. The women were divided into three groups according to reproductive status: pregnant (P), lactating (L), and nonpregnant, nonlactating (NPNL). The P group showed a gain in weight and body mass index only starting with the second trimester of pregnancy. During the postpartum stage, indices of arm muscle mass were lower than those measured prior to pregnancy. The L and NPNL groups did not show any changes in anthropometric indices during the cycle. Activity intensity levels among the women did not change from one visit to another. The levels could be classified as moderate to heavy intensity according to the FAO/WHO/UNU criteria. Overall the NPNL group was more active than the P group, with the latter increasing rest time and light activity at the onset of pregnancy. The time spent on subsistence activities outside of the household varied from one visit to the next according to the demand for agricultural labor. Estimated energy expenditure of the women was compatible with their physiological state; however, increased participation of P and L women in agricultural work, especially work related to rice cultivation, could have a negative impact on their nutritional status. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, motor performance, and growth of senegalese pre-adolescents.

Profiles of usual physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, motor performance, and growth were measured regularly for 2 years in 40 rural Senegalese (Wolof) children-20 boys and 20 girls-who were 10 or 11 years of age and clinically healthy at the beginning of the study. Compared to National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) reference data, the children showed lower weight-for-age and height-for-age throughout the period of observation; the increments of height from year to year were not remarkable and growth spurts were not observed during the study period. The motor performance (running, jumping, throwing) and spirometer test results were inferior to age-matched American children. When adjusted for actual weight and height, jumping and throwing results were similar to those of American children, but running results remained inferior. Cardiorespiratory function appeared inferior to American children of the same age, although speed of recovery after exertion demonstrated good cardiorespiratory efficiency. Physical activity, directly observed over 2-day periods on 4 occasions, corresponded to an average energy expenditure of 1.66 Mets (multiples of basal metabolic rate) (boys) and 1.76 Mets (girls), which are close to the FAO/WHO/UNU values for age. The higher energy expenditure of girls could be explained by their participation in domestic tasks. Both boys and girls spent an average of 42 minutes/day on activities equivalent to energy consumption rates equal or greater than 4.8 Mets. Significant correlations existed between the activity index and cardiorespiratory fitness in boys, and between the activity index and motor performances in girls. Physical aptitudes of sampled children appear compatible with the demands of their social and agricultural tasks. However, it appears that persistent malnutrition may have stunted their growth and motor performances. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Growth and motor performance of healthy Senegalese preschool children.

Body dimensions, motor performance tests, and an aerobic stress test were measured on three different occasions on a group of 88 healthy Senegalese children, 3-6 years of age. The children were divided into 3 cohorts according to year of birth: 1985, 1984, and 1983. The children displayed linear growth approaching North American reference data but had significant weight deficits. Their growth, however, proceeded favorably compared to Senegalese children of the previous generation. In the group of children born in 1983, boys were more muscular and had less arm fat than girls. Motor performances of Senegalese children were inferior to those of European children, but after normalization by body mass, differences in jumping and throwing tasks tended to diminish. Stepwise regression showed that variations in motor performances were particularly due to age, body weight, and stature. The importance of nutritional factors is stressed to explain the development of performance and cardiorespiratory fitness of these children. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.