Medicinal plants cultivated in urban home gardens in Heredia, Costa Rica.

BACKGROUND: Urban ethnobotanical research in Costa Rica is rather rare and home gardens are poorly studied so far. Investigating their biodiversity is crucial in gathering knowledge on the uses of this particular flora, especially related to the owners' health. This study therefore explores the diversity and knowledge of medicinal plants of private garden owners from three different urban neighborhoods in Heredia, Costa Rica, an thus far understudied area. METHODS: Semi-structured interviews (n = 61) were conducted with garden owners in three socioeconomically different urban neighborhoods (Central Heredia, Maria Auxiliadora and Bernardo Benavides). Information was collected about medicinal plants cultivated in the garden, treatments, plant part used and mode of administration. All species were identified and their geographical origin was determined. This information was then compared with the available regional and local (ethno)pharmacopoeias to detect possible newly documented uses. RESULTS: The majority or 90% of garden owners who also held knowledge on medicinal plants species were women (n = 30) of all ages (between 26 and 85 years old). A list of 27 species of medicinal plants was obtained from the participants of three urban neighborhoods. In Central Heredia, 74% (n = 20) of the total species were present, in Maria Auxiliadora 33% (n = 9) and in Bernardo Benavides 56% (n = 15). Most plant species were used by the participants to treat respiratory problems (11 spp.), hair and skin problems (9 spp.) and digestive disorders (8 spp.). Some plants were used to treat multiple ailments (10 spp.). About a third of all species (n = 8) were used by the participants to treat disorders that were not indicated in the regional and local pharmacopoeias. More specifically, Aloe saponaria, Blechum pyramidatum, Costus scaber, Impatiens walleriana, Lippia alba, Tradescantia zebrina, Psidium friedrichsthalianum and Solenostemon scutellarioides used for medicinal purposes by the participants were not found in the above-mentioned resources. CONCLUSIONS: The present study provides new information about the use of medicinal plants in a thus far understudied urban area in Costa Rica. We documented new medicinal uses for several plants listed in the regional and local pharmacopoeias as well as for plants not previously reported in an urban environment. In general, there is little information about the types of plants used for medicinal purposes in urban ecosystems in Costa Rica. Although the country has a high endemic diversity of plants, many exotic medicinal plant species were introduced by the Spaniards during the colonization and by Afro-Costa Rican descendants. The present results thus show how the diversity of the medicinal plants used by these garden owners' confirms a socioeconomic gradient and reflects both Costa Rica's colonial history as well as the current epidemiological profile of the country. These findings underline the need for more ethnobotanical research in urban areas in Costa Rica.

Indicadores ambientales de áreas verdes urbanas para la gestión en dos ciudades de Costa Rica / Environmental indicators of urban green areas for management in two cities of Costa Rica

Resumen La calidad ambiental contribuye con el bienestar físico y mental de la población. En este sentido las áreas verdes (AV) de las ciudades son espacios esenciales para la convivencia, el deporte, la socialización, y la recreación, entre otros. El objetivo de esta investigación fue determinar las condiciones ambientales de las AV, utilizando indicadores como herramientas para la gestión urbana en dos ciudades de Costa Rica. El área de estudio correspondió a los distritos de Heredia y el Carmen, Costa Rica. Se determinaron las AV existentes utilizando imágenes satelitales Rapid Eye, 2012 mediante análisis espacial y teledetección. Se aplicaron 11 indicadores de áreas verdes urbanas, se identificó la especie, se midió la altura, el DAP y el número de árboles en parques y calles. Además, se realizaron encuestas a los usuarios de las AV públicas, en temas relacionados con accesibilidad y uso de las AV. Se identificaron cinco tipos de AV en el Carmen y seis Heredia. El porcentaje de áreas verdes públicas y privadas correspondió a 36 % y 64 % en el Carmen y 13 % y 87 % en Heredia, respectivamente. El área verde per cápita (m2/hab) fue de 24.6 en el Carmen y de 2.7 en Heredia. Se identificaron 62 especies de árboles en los parques del Carmen y 23 en Heredia. Se contabilizaron 1 105 árboles de 61 especies en las calles, aceras y avenidas del Carmen y 278 individuos de 47 especies en Heredia. En cuanto a la existencia de vegetación ribereña se determinó que los ríos Pirro, Burrio, Torres y la quebrada Negritos mantienen 82, 51, 81 y 14 % del área de protección de sus márgenes en uso conforme. De 11 AV públicas evaluadas, nueve presentaron una accesibilidad física alta. En ambos distritos los ciudadanos encuestados indicaron la necesidad de contar con más AV, resaltando el valor recreativo, ecológico y turístico de estos espacios. Se concluye que los indicadores de AV urbanas evidenciaron diferencias entre las condiciones ambientales en las dos ciudades evaluadas, y la factibilidad de su aplicación como insumo para la gestión ambiental sostenible de los ecosistemas urbanos.(AU)

Abstract Environmental quality contributes to the physical and mental well-being of the population. In this way, the green areas (GA) of the cities are essential spaces for coexistence, sports, socialization, and recreation, among others. The objective of this research was to determine the environmental conditions of green areas, using indicators as tool for urban management in two cities of Costa Rica. The study area corresponded to the districts of Heredia and Carmen, Costa Rica. The existing GA were determined using Rapid Eye satellite images, 2012 through spatial analysis and remote sensing. Eleven indicators of urban green areas were applied, the species was identified, the height, the diameter at breast height (DBH) and the number of trees in parks and streets were measured. In addition, surveys were conducted to users of public GA, on issues related to accessibility and use of GA. Five types of GA were identified in Carmen and six in Heredia. The percentage of public and private green areas corresponded to 36 % and 64 % in Carmen and 13 % and 87 % in Heredia respectively. The green area per capita (m2/hab) was 24.6 in Carmen and 2.7 in Heredia. Sixty-two species of trees were identified in the Carmen parks and 23 in Heredia. There were 1 105 trees of 61 species in the streets, sidewalks and avenues of Carmen and 278 individuals of 47 species in Heredia. Regarding the existence of riparian vegetation, it was determined that Pirro, Burrio, Torres and Negritos streams maintain 82, 51, 81 and 14 % of margin protection areas in conforming use. Eleven of the public GA's were evaluated, nine presented a high physical accessibility. In both districts, the surveyed citizens indicated the necessity to have more GA, highlighting the recreational, ecological and touristic value of these spaces. It is concluded that the indicators of urban green areas showed that there are differences between the environmental conditions in both of the evaluated cities. In addition, the applicability of the indicators is feasible as an input for the sustainable environmental management of urban ecosystems.(AU)

Parásitos gastrointestinales de aves silvestres en un ecosistema ribereño urbano tropical en Heredia, Costa Rica / Gastrointestinal parasites of wild birds in a tropical riverine urban ecosystem in Heredia, Costa Rica

Resumen En las zonas urbanas, los ríos brindan diversos servicios ecosistémicos, entre ellos, funcionan como corredores biológicos interurbanos, permitiendo a las aves trasladarse y refugiarse en medio de la ciudad. Sin embargo, los altos niveles de contaminación las exponen, e incluso al ser humano, a diversos problemas de salud. De aquí la importancia de realizar diagnósticos ambientales que permitan identificar alteraciones y mitigarlos de forma oportuna. En este estudió se da un primer diagnóstico de la situación parasitaria de las aves silvestres del río Pirro ubicado en un entorno urbano, fragmentado y con altos niveles de contaminación superficial del agua. El muestreo se llevó a cabo en la parte alta y media del río Pirro en Heredia, Costa Rica. Se utilizaron redes de niebla para la captura de las aves, y se les realizó un examen objetivo general (EOG) para revisar su estado de nutrición e hidratación, así como su estado físico; además, se recolectaron muestras de heces para la caracterización de los parásitos gastrointestinales (PGI). Este procedimiento se realizó a 158 aves, correspondientes a 30 especies, se identificaron tres grupos de estos: protozoarios, nematodos y cestodos. Los porcentajes de infección más altos estuvieron representados por los coccidios, con 97.6 %, seguido de los nematodos y cestodos con un 2.4 %. Dentro del grupo de los coccidios se logró identificar: Eimeria spp., Isospora spp., en los nemátodos: a nivel de grupo Strongylida y a nivel de género: Capillaria spp. Y para los céstodos: Choanotaenia spp. El EOG resultó de regular a bueno en todos los individuos capturados sin embargo, mediante el modelo de regresión lineal general (General Lineal Model) se identificó que la cavidad oral de las aves y el estado del plumaje, podrían ser las variables más relacionadas con el porcentaje de infección por parásitos gastrointestinales, esto debido a que la cavidad oral es la vía principal de ingesta para el ave, así como el estado del plumaje evidencia su vigor.

Abstract In urban ecosystems, rivers provide various ecosystem services, among them, serving as interurban biological corridor, allowing birds to move and shelter in the middle of the city. However, high levels of pollution expose them, and even humans, to several health problems. Hence the importance of performing environmental diagnoses that allows to identify alterations and mitigate them in a timely manner. This study provides a first diagnosis of the parasitic situation of wild birds along the Pirro river which is located in an urban environment, fragmented and with high levels of surface water pollution. The sampling was carried out at the upper and middle part of the Pirro river in Heredia, Costa Rica. Mist-nets were used to capture the birds, and a general objective exam (GOE) was conducted in order to evaluate their nutritional and hydration state, as well as their physical state. In addition, stool samples were collected in order to characterize the gastrointestinal parasites (GPI). This procedure was carried out on 158 birds, belonging to 30 species, three PGI groups were identified: protozoa, nematodes and cestodes. The highest percentages of infection were represented by coccidia, with 97.6 %, followed by nematodes and cestodes with 2.4 %. Within the group of coccidios, it was possible to identify Eimeria spp., Isospora spp., in the nematodes: at the Strongylida group level and at the Capillaria spp., and for the cestodes: Choanotaenia spp. GOE resulted regular-to-good in all individuals captured, however, a general linear model was used to identify that the oral cavity and the state of the plumage could be the more linked variables with the percentage of infection by gastrointestinal parasites in birds, due to the fact that the oral cavity is the bird's main route of ingestion, as well as the state of the plumage shows its vigor. Rev. Biol. Trop. 66(2): 788-798. Epub 2018 June 01.