Time-frequency approaches to investigating changes in feedback processing during childhood and adolescence.

Processing feedback from the environment is an essential function during development to adapt behavior in advantageous ways. One measure of feedback processing, the feedback negativity (FN), is an ERP observed following the presentation of feedback. Findings detailing developmental changes in the FN have been mixed, possibly due to limitations in traditional ERP measurement methods. Recent work shows that both theta and delta frequency activity contribute to the FN; utilizing time-frequency methods to measure change in power and phase in these frequency bands may provide more accurate representation of feedback processing development in childhood and adolescence. We employ time-frequency power and intertrial phase synchrony measures, in addition to conventional time-domain ERP methods, to examine the development of feedback processing in the theta (4-7 Hz) and delta (.1-3 Hz) bands throughout adolescence. A sample of 54 female participants (8-17 years old) completed a gambling task while EEG was recorded. As expected, time-domain ERP amplitudes showed no association with age. In contrast, significant effects were observed for the time-frequency measures, with theta power decreasing with age and delta power increasing with age. For intertrial phase synchrony, delta synchrony increased with age, while age-related changes in theta synchrony differed for gains and losses. Collectively, these findings highlight the importance of considering time-frequency dynamics when exploring how the processing of feedback develops through late childhood and adolescence. In particular, the role of delta band activity and theta synchrony appear central to understanding age-related changes in the neural response to feedback.

Event-related brain correlates of associative learning without awareness.

Controversy exists about whether associative learning occurs without awareness. In an earlier study using subthreshold (subliminal) stimuli, we reported evidence that such learning could occur as measured by event-related brain potentials [ERP; Cons. Cognit. 6 (1997) 519]. In the present study, we extend these findings by changing several aspects of the methodology in order to provide a more stringent test of this effect and to examine its generality. We used two matched words (murder and cancer) as conditional stimuli (CS); a 100 dB white noise blast as unconditional stimulus (US); a CS-US interval of 3 s; and a full-factorial design with CSs counterbalanced. The conditioning-acquisition phase occurred when the CSs were perceptually unconscious, as confirmed by a subsequent behavioral task. The conditioning-acquisition and postconditioning-extinction phases were examined for ERP evidence of associative learning. The clearest and strongest evidence for associative learning without awareness was observed in the ERP component measures (up to 1 s, poststimulus) in the postconditioning-extinction phase. The CS+ was significantly more positive than the CS- in the P3b-LP component region, which is highly consistent with the results of our earlier study. Differences also were observed in the P1-P2 components. In an unexpected finding, we observed a significant positive slow potential shift for the CS+ in the region between 1 and 3 s poststimulus. We discuss these results and their implications for our understanding of associative learning and awareness.

Abortion without free and informed consent? An Austrian case of first impression.

Notwithstanding the question of whether abortion is generally or exceptionally a legitimate means of family planning, it is basically agreed that abortion is not justifiable without free and informed consent of the pregnant woman. However, if abortion is held by the legislature to be a "ground of justification" (i.e., a far-reaching exception to criminal liability), is it true that abortion may also be carried out for the benefit of a pregnant woman who is not able to give free and informed consent? Should a substituted-judgment approach be applied in cases where the woman is incompetent to decide? Or should the pregnant woman's relatives' interests be taken into account exclusively? The author tries to answer these questions, which were tackled by the Austrian Supreme Court in a recent case.

Event-related brain potentials differentiate positive and negative mood adjectives during both supraliminal and subliminal visual processing.

This experiment provides brain event-related potential (ERP) evidence for differential processing of visually presented pleasant and unpleasant affectively valent words (mood adjectives) for both supraliminal (40 ms) and subliminal (unmasked, 1 ms) stimulus durations. Unpleasant words elicited a more positive amplitude than pleasant words in both durations. ERP components (P1, N1, P2, P3, and a late positive potential; LP) were measured at six electrode sites (F3, F4, P3, P4, CzPz, Oz). ERPs to subliminal stimuli demonstrated differences between pleasant and unpleasant words in the left hemisphere across all measured components. Supraliminal processing showed similar differences in the left hemisphere for early components (P1 and N1), but bilateral differences for late components (P3 and LP). Activity in the P2 time window was associated with the divergence between supraliminal and subliminal affective responses. Implications for the study of affect and consciousness are discussed.

Subliminal visual oddball stimuli evoke a P300 component.

OBJECTIVE: To provide evidence that a P300 component can be elicited by subliminal stimuli in an oddball paradigm. METHODS: The words LEFT and RIGHT were presented in a frequent-rare ratio (80-20%), counterbalanced between subjects. Stimuli were presented at the objective detection threshold (d'=0, via unmasked 1 ms presentations), a stringent measure for detecting any conscious perception. RESULTS: A significantly larger amplitude component was found for rare vs. frequent stimulus presentations across electrodes Fz, Cz, and Pz using both a broad 200-900 ms window (F(1,27)=5.75, P<0.012, eta(2)=0.18; one-tailed), and a more narrow 400-760 ms window defined using principal component analysis (F(1,27)=10.10, P<0.002, eta(2)=0.27; one-tailed). No significant component latency effects were found. An analysis of the conscious perception index (d') and the oddball effect (rare-frequent amplitude difference) revealed a negative relationship, further supporting the contention that conscious perception does not account for the finding, and suggesting that any conscious stimulus detection may inhibit this subliminal effect. CONCLUSIONS: Results provide evidence that an endogenous component can be elicited by undetectable subliminal stimuli in an oddball paradigm. Implications are discussed for comparing conscious and unconscious information processing, unconscious learning, and the measurement of ERPs to subliminal stimuli.

Further evidence for unconscious learning: preliminary support for the conditioning of facial EMG to subliminal stimuli.

This study investigated the predictive validity of facial electromyograms (EMGs) in a subliminal conditioning paradigm. Two schematic faces (pleasant; CS- and unpleasant; CS+), were presented to eight right-handed males during supraliminal pre- and postconditioning phases. Subliminal conditioning consisted of 36 energy-masked presentations of each face pairing the CS+ with an aversive shock 800 ms poststimulus. A forced-choice recognition task established that the energy mask effectively precluded conscious recognition of stimuli. For the obicularis oculi and corrugator EMGs, significant face x condition interactions were found at 20-100 ms and 400-792 ms poststimulus. The results demonstrate the existence of an expressive motoric response related to affect operating in response to a learned but unconscious event. Subjects were not aware of a contingency between the CS+ and the US, suggesting emotional contingencies can be unconsciously acquired.

The living will: does an advance refusal of treatment made with capacity always survive any supervening incapacity?

There is a widespread consensus in law and medical ethics that living wills have to be obeyed by the physician if the patient was competent when the medical directive was signed and if, after the patient becomes incompetent, additional conditions occur which were considered by him. According to this viewpoint, the effectiveness of living wills is a direct consequence of the patient's right of self-determination. As the British Law Commission has recently put it: "An advance refusal made with capacity simply survives any supervening incapacity." However, this opinion does not take into account the empirical fact that the formerly competent person's critical interests (at t1) do not necessarily correspond wit his experiential interests after incompetency is established irreversibly (at t2). The author's goal is to answer the question of whether there can be cases which do not allow the formerly competent person's critical interests to prevail over the incompetent patient's experiential interests.

Brain indices of nonconscious associative learning.

Using a classical conditioning technique, this study investigated whether nonconscious associative learning could be indexed by event-related brain activity (ERP). There were three phases. In a preconditioning baseline phase, pleasant and unpleasant facial schematics were presented in awareness (suprathreshold). A conditioning phase followed, in which stimuli were presented outside awareness (subthreshold, via energy masking), with an unpleasant face (CS+) linked to an aversive shock and a pleasant face (CS-) not linked to a shock. The third, postconditioning phase, involved stimulus presentations in awareness (suprathreshold). Evidence for acquisition of a conditional response was sought by comparing suprathreshold pre- and postconditioning phases, as well as in the subthreshold conditioning phase itself. For the pre-postconditioning phase analyses, significant ERP component differences differentiating CS+ and CS- were observed for N1, P2, and especially P3. For the conditioning phase, significant differences were observed in the 100-400 ms. post-stimulus region reflecting a CS+ processing negativity. Brain activity does indeed index the acquisition of a conditional response to subthreshold stimuli. Associative learning can occur outside awareness.

[Legal limits of assisted death: exemplified by amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]. / Die rechtlichen Grenzen der Sterbehilfe: gezeigt am Beispiel der amyotrophen Lateralsklerose.

The article discusses the question to what extent the physician may offer aid in dying to the terminally ill patient. The author comes to the conclusion that the withdrawal of artificial ventilation (after application of anesthesia) is allowed and even a physician's duty if the patient refuses further ventilation. Because the competent patient may refuse treatment at any time, a doctor's willful disregard of his patient's right to self-determination could also be regarded as battery [section 110 Penal Code).

Marketing of human organs?

This article discusses the highly controversial question whether human organs should be allowed to be the object of a contract aimed at profit. The author comes to the conclusion that--seen from a consequentialist viewpoint--the legislature is not well-advised to allow organ donations for consideration. However, it is admitted that a more deontological approach could come to quite the opposite conclusion.

Liability risks in gynaecology and obstetrics under German and Austrian law.

This article discusses various aspects of criminal and civil liability with special reference to Austrian and German law. Whereas there are already innumerable German court decisions covering gynaecological and obstetric practice this is not yet true for Austria. However, the basic legal structure in both legal systems is very similar. Therefore German court practice which is progressively adopting a very strict liability regime could be influential for Austria's judiciary as well.

Coronary risk factors and a 20-year incidence of coronary heart disease and mortality in a Mediterranean industrial population. The Manresa Study, Spain.

The association between coronary risk factors measured at entry and 20-year coronary heart disease (CHD) incidence and mortality was studied in an industrial cohort of 1059 men aged 30 to 59 years and free of CHD in 1968, in Spain. Myocardial infarction and fatal CHD cases were diagnosed according to recognized criteria. Mean serum cholesterol was 223.3 mg.dl-1 and 67% of men were current smokers. Rates of CHD incidence, CHD mortality and all-causes mortality, per 10(5) persons-year of observation, were 476, 194 and 617, respectively. Age, serum cholesterol, plasma glucose, cigarettes smoked and systolic blood pressure (SBP) contributed to the risk of CHD incidence. The first four variables predicted CHD death risk. All-causes death risk was positively associated with age, plasma glucose and SBP levels. Results are consistent with prior reported low CHD mortality and morbidity rates in the Mediterranean area, and confirm the importance of coronary risk factors in this low-risk population.

Between rationality and metaphysics: the legal regulation of assisted reproduction in Germany, Austria and Switzerland--a comparative analysis.

The article discusses various legal aspects of assisted procreation. Emphasis is put on the law in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, where several acts have already been passed by parliament or are in preparation. Even among these countries there is no common approach towards the regulation of reproductive medicine. Whereas Germany criminalizes many of the new reproductive techniques, Austria has laid down an excessive number of administrative requirements that the gynaecologist has to meet. In Switzerland the legal situation is difficult to survey because each canton can decide its own regulation.

[The reproductive medicine legislation: new legal responsibilities for the Austrian gynecologist]. / Das Fortpflanzungsmedizingesetz: Neue Rechtspflichten für den österreichischen Gynäkologen.

In spring 1992 the Austrian Parliament has enacted a new law dealing with reproductive medicine. The 'Act on medically assisted conception' contains provisions which totally prohibit particular methods of assisted fertilization (such as embryo or egg donation). The main goal of the act, however, is to regulate procreative medicine and to amend the Austrian General Civil Code: the parents-to-be are now considered to have the legal rights and responsibilities of biological parents in any case.

Informed consent and 'wrongful birth': the Austrian Supreme Court's approach.

This article examines to what extent the Austrian Supreme Court is willing to apply the theory of informed consent and wrongful birth. In the decision at issue the judges came to the conclusion that a physician need not inform about every single risk of medical therapy. With regard to wrongful birth, the court left open for further discussion whether maintenance costs which were caused by a physician's negligent conduct are a matter of compensation.

Towards a new legal regulation of medically assisted reproduction: the Austrian approach.

At long last Austria, too, has come round to a more or less final draft law on assisted reproduction (at the third attempt). It portrays a compromise of liberal and conservative views, which in some points has led to inconsistencies in its logical conception. The donation of semen, for instance, will be permitted, whereas ova donation will be strictly forbidden, the law will allow AID and at the same time prohibit heterologous IVF. The leading principles throughout this law, viz human dignity, procreative autonomy, and the best interests of the child, undoubtedly vital in this context, are sometimes applied to justify regulations, for example, those that deny single women access to assisted reproduction, violating the principle of equality. In this respect, the draft law definitely does not bear a closer examination.

[Legal issues in relation to cryopreservation of human gametes and embryos]. / Rechtsfragen im Zusammenhang mit der Kryokonservierung humaner Gameten und Embryonen.

The article discusses the legal status of human gametes and embryos produced by in vitro fertilization. The author concludes that sperm, ova and embryos are not part of the estate of the procreators. However, the originators of gametes and embryos are granted the full disposition on their germ cells and the embryos resulting thereof.

Depression, alexithymia, and pain prone disorder: a Rorschach study.

The relationship between depression and chronic low back pain (LBP) is controversial. Theorists differ in the emphasis they place on predisposing versus reactive factors in LBP disability and depression. Alexithymia has been suggested as a predisposing factor in psychosomatic disorders, including chronic LBP. This study addresses the association between depression, alexithymia, and LBP using the Rorschach comprehensive system. LBP patients were hypothesized to be distinguishable from Research Diagnostic Criteria-diagnosed inpatient depressives, to exhibit features of alexithymia, and to resemble a group of DSM-III personality disorders. Subjects were 33 chronic LBP patients. Results supported the hypotheses. On depression measures, LBP patients differed significantly from depressives (p less than .001). LBP patients exhibited Rorschach features consistent with alexithymia. They also exhibited a number of similarities to the personality disorders group. The role of alexithymia as a cognitive-mediating factor in coping and adaptation is discussed.