Ischemic Brain Injury: Involvement of Lipids in the Pathophysiology of Stroke and Therapeutic Strategies.

Stroke is a devastating neurological disorder that is characterized by the sudden disruption of blood flow to the brain. Lipids are essential components of brain structure and function and play pivotal roles in stroke pathophysiology. Dysregulation of lipid signaling pathways modulates key cellular processes such as apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress, exacerbating ischemic brain injury. In the present review, we summarize the roles of lipids in stroke pathology in different models (cell cultures, animal, and human studies). Additionally, the potential of lipids, especially polyunsaturated fatty acids, to promote neuroprotection and their use as biomarkers in stroke are discussed.

Differential Remodeling of the Oxylipin Pool After FLASH Versus Conventional Dose-Rate Irradiation In Vitro and In Vivo.

PURPOSE: The products of lipid peroxidation have been implicated in human diseases and aging. This prompted us to investigate the response to conventional (CONV) versus FLASH irradiation of oxylipins, a family of bioactive lipid metabolites derived from omega-3 or omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids through oxygen-dependent non-enzymatic as well as dioxygenase-mediated free radical reactions. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry was used to quantify the expression of 37 oxylipins derived from eicosatetraenoic, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid in mouse lung and in normal or cancer cells exposed to either radiation modality under precise monitoring of the temperature and oxygenation. Among the 37 isomers assayed, 14-16 were present in high enough amount to enable quantitative analysis. The endpoints were the expression of oxylipins as a function of the dose of radiation, normoxia versus hypoxia, temperature and post-irradiation time. RESULTS: In normal, normoxic cells at 37°C radiation elicited destruction and neosynthesis of oxylipins acting antagonistically on a background subject to rapid remodeling by oxygenases. Neosynthesis was observed in the CONV mode only, in such a way that the level of oxylipins at 5 minutes after FLASH irradiation was 20-50% lower than in non-irradiated and CONV-irradiated cells. Hypoxia mitigated the differential CONV versus FLASH response in some oxylipins. These patterns were not reproduced in tumor cells. Depression of specific oxylipins following FLASH irradiation was observed in mouse lung at 5 min following irradiation, with near complete recovery in 24 hours and further remodeling at one week and two months post-irradiation. CONCLUSIONS: Down-regulation of oxylipins was a hallmark of FLASH irradiation specific of normal cells. Temperature effects suggest that this process occurs via diffusion-controlled, bimolecular recombination of a primary radical species upstream from peroxyl radical formation and evoke a major role of the membrane composition and fluidity in response to the FLASH modality.

Effects of Fatty Acid Metabolites on Adipocytes Britening: Role of Thromboxane A2.

Obesity is a complex disease highly related to diet and lifestyle and is associated with low amount of thermogenic adipocytes. Therapeutics that regulate brown adipocyte recruitment and activity represent interesting strategies to fight overweight and associated comorbidities. Recent studies suggest a role for several fatty acids and their metabolites, called lipokines, in the control of thermogenesis. The purpose of this work was to analyze the role of several lipokines in the control of brown/brite adipocyte formation. We used a validated human adipocyte model, human multipotent adipose-derived stem cell model (hMADS). In the absence of rosiglitazone, hMADS cells differentiate into white adipocytes, but convert into brite adipocytes upon rosiglitazone or prostacyclin 2 (PGI2) treatment. Gene expression was quantified using RT-qPCR and protein levels were assessed by Western blotting. We show here that lipokines such as 12,13-diHOME, 12-HEPE, 15dPGJ2 and 15dPGJ3 were not able to induce browning of white hMADS adipocytes. However, both fatty acid esters of hydroxy fatty acids (FAHFAs), 9-PAHPA and 9-PAHSA potentiated brown key marker UCP1 mRNA levels. Interestingly, CTA2, the stable analog of thromboxane A2 (TXA2), but not its inactive metabolite TXB2, inhibited the rosiglitazone and PGI2-induced browning of hMADS adipocytes. These results pinpoint TXA2 as a lipokine inhibiting brown adipocyte formation that is antagonized by PGI2. Our data open new horizons in the development of potential therapies based on the control of thromboxane A2/prostacyclin balance to combat obesity and associated metabolic disorders.

Lipid Dys-Homeostasis Contributes to APOE4-Associated AD Pathology.

The association of the APOE4 (vs. APOE3) isoform with an increased risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is unequivocal, but the underlying mechanisms remain incompletely elucidated. A prevailing hypothesis incriminates the impaired ability of APOE4 to clear neurotoxic amyloid-ß peptides (Aß) from the brain as the main mechanism linking the apolipoprotein isoform to disease etiology. The APOE protein mediates lipid transport both within the brain and from the brain to the periphery, suggesting that lipids may be potential co-factors in APOE4-associated physiopathology. The present study reveals several changes in the pathways of lipid homeostasis in the brains of mice expressing the human APOE4 vs. APOE3 isoform. Carriers of APOE4 had altered cholesterol turnover, an imbalance in the ratio of specific classes of phospholipids, lower levels of phosphatidylethanolamines bearing polyunsaturated fatty acids and an overall elevation in levels of monounsaturated fatty acids. These modifications in lipid homeostasis were related to increased production of Aß peptides as well as augmented levels of tau and phosphorylated tau in primary neuronal cultures. This suite of APOE4-associated anomalies in lipid homeostasis and neurotoxic protein levels may be related to the accrued risk for AD in APOE4 carriers and provides novel insights into potential strategies for therapeutic intervention.

Esterification of Docosahexaenoic Acid Enhances Its Transport to the Brain and Its Potential Therapeutic Use in Brain Diseases.

Docosahexaenoic acid-containing lysophosphatidylcholine (DHA-LysoPC) is presented as the main transporter of DHA from blood plasma to the brain. This is related to the major facilitator superfamily domain-containing protein 2A (Mfsd2a) symporter expression in the blood-brain barrier that recognizes the various lyso-phospholipids that have choline in their polar head. In order to stabilize the DHA moiety at the sn-2 position of LysoPC, the sn-1 position was esterified by the shortest acetyl chain, creating the structural phospholipid 1-acetyl,2-docosahexaenoyl-glycerophosphocholine (AceDoPC). This small structure modification allows the maintaining of the preferential brain uptake of DHA over non-esterified DHA. Additional properties were found for AceDoPC, such as antioxidant properties, especially due to the aspirin-like acetyl moiety, as well as the capacity to generate acetylcholine in response to the phospholipase D cleavage of the polar head. Esterification of DHA within DHA-LysoPC or AceDoPC could elicit more potent neuroprotective effects against neurological diseases.

Synovial Extracellular Vesicles: Structure and Role in Synovial Fluid Tribological Performances.

The quality of the lubricant between cartilaginous joint surfaces impacts the joint's mechanistic properties. In this study, we define the biochemical, ultrastructural, and tribological signatures of synovial fluids (SF) from patients with degenerative (osteoarthritis-OA) or inflammatory (rheumatoid arthritis-RA) joint pathologies in comparison with SF from healthy subjects. Phospholipid (PL) concentration in SF increased in pathological contexts, but the proportion PL relative to the overall lipids decreased. Subtle changes in PL chain composition were attributed to the inflammatory state. Transmission electron microscopy showed the occurrence of large multilamellar synovial extracellular vesicles (EV) filled with glycoprotein gel in healthy subjects. Synovial extracellular vesicle structure was altered in SF from OA and RA patients. RA samples systematically showed lower viscosity than healthy samples under a hydrodynamic lubricating regimen whereas OA samples showed higher viscosity. In turn, under a boundary regimen, cartilage surfaces in both pathological situations showed high wear and friction coefficients. Thus, we found a difference in the biochemical, tribological, and ultrastructural properties of synovial fluid in healthy people and patients with osteoarthritis and arthritis of the joints, and that large, multilamellar vesicles are essential for good boundary lubrication by ensuring a ball-bearing effect and limiting the destruction of lipid layers at the cartilage surface.

Specific shifts in the endocannabinoid system in hibernating brown bears.

In small hibernators, global downregulation of the endocannabinoid system (ECS), which is involved in modulating neuronal signaling, feeding behavior, energy metabolism, and circannual rhythms, has been reported to possibly drive physiological adaptation to the hibernating state. In hibernating brown bears (Ursus arctos), we hypothesized that beyond an overall suppression of the ECS, seasonal shift in endocannabinoids compounds could be linked to bear's peculiar features that include hibernation without arousal episodes and capacity to react to external disturbance. We explored circulating lipids in serum and the ECS in plasma and metabolically active tissues in free-ranging subadult Scandinavian brown bears when both active and hibernating. In winter bear serum, in addition to a 2-fold increase in total fatty acid concentration, we found significant changes in relative proportions of circulating fatty acids, such as a 2-fold increase in docosahexaenoic acid C22:6 n-3 and a decrease in arachidonic acid C20:4 n-6. In adipose and muscle tissues of hibernating bears, we found significant lower concentrations of 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), a major ligand of cannabinoid receptors 1 (CB1) and 2 (CB2). Lower mRNA level for genes encoding CB1 and CB2 were also found in winter muscle and adipose tissue, respectively. The observed reduction in ECS tone may promote fatty acid mobilization from body fat stores, and favor carbohydrate metabolism in skeletal muscle of hibernating bears. Additionally, high circulating level of the endocannabinoid-like compound N-oleoylethanolamide (OEA) in winter could favor lipolysis and fatty acid oxidation in peripheral tissues. We also speculated on a role of OEA in the conservation of an anorexigenic signal and in the maintenance of torpor during hibernation, while sustaining the capacity of bears to sense stimuli from the environment.

Anti-inflammatory and anti-virus potential of poxytrins, especially protectin DX.

Poxytrins (Pufa Oxygenated Trienes) are dihydroxy derivatives from polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) with adjacent hydroxyl groups to a conjugated triene having the specific E,Z,E geometry. They are made by the double action of one lipoxygenase or the combined actions of two lipoxygenases, followed by reduction of the resulting hydroperoxides with glutathione peroxidase. Because of their E,Z,E conjugated triene, poxytrins may inhibit inflammation associated with cyclooxygenase (COX) activities, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation. In addition of inhibiting COX activities, at least one poxytrin, namely protectin DX (PDX) from docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), has also been reported as able to inhibit influenza virus replication by targeting its RNA metabolism.

Brain targeting with docosahexaenoic acid as a prospective therapy for neurodegenerative diseases and its passage across blood brain barrier.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) is the main omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid in brain tissues necessary for common brain growth and function. DHA can be provided to the body through two origins: an exogenous origin, from direct dietary intakes and an endogenous one, from the bioconversion of the essential α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3) in the liver. In humans, the biosynthesis of DHA from its precursor ALA is very low. A reduction in the cerebral amount of DHA is detected in patients suffering from neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Considering the vital functions of DHA for the brain, new methodologies to target the brain with DHA offers encouraging perceptions in the improvement of precautionary and therapeutic approaches for neurodegenerative diseases. The aim of the present review was to provide better understanding of the cerebral uptake of DHA in different form including free fatty acids, Lysophosphatidylcholines LysoPC-DHA as well as structured phospholipids. First, we explored the special structure of the blood-brain barrier BBB, BBB being a physical and metabolic barrier with restrictive properties. Then, we discussed the incorporation of DHA into the membrane phospholipids of the brain, the neuroprotective and therapeutic effect of DHA for neurological diseases.

Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) Bioavailability in Humans after Oral Intake of DHA-Containing Triacylglycerol or the Structured Phospholipid AceDoPC®.

AceDoPC® is a structured glycerophospholipid that targets the brain with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and is neuroprotective in the experimental ischemic stroke. AceDoPC® is a stabilized form of the physiological 2-DHA-LysoPC with an acetyl group at the sn1 position; preventing the migration of DHA from the sn2 to sn1 position. In this study we aimed to know the bioavailability of 13C-labeled DHA after oral intake of a single dose of 13C-AceDoPC®, in comparison with 13C-DHA in triglycerides (TAG), using gas chromatography/combustion/isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC/C/IRMS) to assess the 13C enrichment of DHA-containing lipids. 13C-DHA enrichment in plasma phospholipids was significantly higher after intake of AceDoPC® compared with TAG-DHA, peaking after 24 h in both cases. In red cells, 13C-DHA enrichment in choline phospholipids was comparable from both sources of DHA, with a maximum after 72 h, whereas the 13C-DHA enrichment in ethanolamine phospholipids was higher from AceDoPC® compared to TAG-DHA, and continued to increase after 144 h. Overall, our study indicates that DHA from AceDoPC® is more efficient than from TAG-DHA for a sustained accumulation in red cell ethanolamine phospholipids, which has been associated with increased brain accretion.

Omega-3 Docosahexaenoic Acid Is a Mediator of Fate-Decision of Adult Neural Stem Cells.

The mammalian brain is enriched with lipids that serve as energy catalyzers or secondary messengers of essential signaling pathways. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an omega-3 fatty acid synthesized de novo at low levels in humans, an endogenous supply from its precursors, and is mainly incorporated from nutrition, an exogeneous supply. Decreased levels of DHA have been reported in the brains of patients with neurodegenerative diseases. Preventing this decrease or supplementing the brain with DHA has been considered as a therapy for the DHA brain deficiency that could be linked with neuronal death or neurodegeneration. The mammalian brain has, however, a mechanism of compensation for loss of neurons in the brain: neurogenesis, the birth of neurons from neural stem cells. In adulthood, neurogenesis is still present, although at a slower rate and with low efficiency, where most of the newly born neurons die. Neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) have been shown to require lipids for proper metabolism for proliferation maintenance and neurogenesis induction. Recent studies have focused on the effects of these essential lipids on the neurobiology of NSPCs. This review aimed to introduce the possible use of DHA to impact NSPC fate-decision as a therapy for neurodegenerative diseases.

How the plasma lysophospholipid and unesterified fatty acid pools supply the brain with docosahexaenoic acid.

The brain requires a constant supply of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) from blood to maintain DHA levels within the brain. Several plasma pools have been proposed to supply the brain with DHA, including plasma lipoproteins, lysophosphatidylcholine and unesterified fatty acids. Here we briefly review the evidence for each plasma pool supplying the brain highlighting controversies and remaining questions. We conclude that circulating lysophosphatidylcholine has a higher brain/body partition coefficient than unesterified DHA while unesterified DHA entry into the brain is more rapid.

Targeting the Brain with a Neuroprotective Omega-3 Fatty Acid to Enhance Neurogenesis in Hypoxic Condition in Culture.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) is an essential omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) that is required for proper brain development and cerebral functions. While DHA deficiency in the brain was shown to be linked to the emergence of cerebral diseases, a dietary intake of omega-3 PUFA could prevent or attenuate neurologic disturbances linked with aging or neurodegenerative diseases. In this context, targeting the brain with DHA might offer great promise in developing new therapeutics for neurodegenerative diseases. We previously synthesized a stabilized form of DHA-containing lysophosphatidylcholine a major vector of DHA transportation to the brain, which is 1-acetyl,2-docoshexaenoyl-glycerophosphocholine, named AceDoPC®. Injection of AceDoPC® or DHA after experimental ischemic stroke showed that both molecules had neuroprotective effects but AceDoPC® was the most potent. This study aims to investigate the beneficial effects of DHA either unesterified or esterified within AceDoPC® on a model of neurogenesis in vitro, under physiological or pathological conditions. The effect of protectin DX (PDX, a double lipoxygenase product of DHA) was also tested. We cultured neural stem progenitor cells (NSPCs) derived from the adult mouse brain under normal or hypoxigenic (ischemic) conditions in vitro. Neurogenesis study of cell cultures with AceDoPC® showed enhanced neurogenesis compared to addition of unesterified DHA, PDX, or vehicle control, especially under pathological conditions. Our studies of the potential mechanisms involved in neuroprotection hinted that AceDoPC® neuroprotective and regenerative effects might be due in part to its anti-oxidative effects. These results indicate the potential for novel therapeutics against stroke that target the brain.

Increased diffusivity of lycopene in hot break vs. cold break purees may be due to bioconversion of associated phospholipids rather than differential destruction of fruit tissues or cell structures.

Lycopene bioaccessibility is enhanced by processing, as explained by the destructuration of plant tissues, making diffusion easier. However, in tomato, the relationship between grinding intensity and lycopene release from purees suffers from uncertainty. In particular, hot break puree exhibited twice as much diffusible lycopene as compared to cold break, while both were processed with the same grinding intensity. To explain the difference, we systematically studied the diffusivity of particles according to their size and integrity, and used microscopic and physical analyses to reveal structural differences. Neither particle size distribution, nor cell destruction, nor plastid transformation exhibited any correlation to the differences in diffusivity. However, Raman microspectroscopy combined with a chemometric analysis revealed significant changes in lycopene spectra and a putative linkage to phospholipid transformation. Phospholipid profiling of five pairs of contrasted purees revealed that, during the cold break, a transition from complex phospholipids to more simple phosphatidic acid molecules systematically occurred.

Physiological and pathological roles of FATP-mediated lipid droplets in Drosophila and mice retina.

Increasing evidence suggests that dysregulation of lipid metabolism is associated with neurodegeneration in retinal diseases such as age-related macular degeneration and in brain disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Lipid storage organelles (lipid droplets, LDs), accumulate in many cell types in response to stress, and it is now clear that LDs function not only as lipid stores but also as dynamic regulators of the stress response. However, whether these LDs are always protective or can also be deleterious to the cell is unknown. Here, we investigated the consequences of LD accumulation on retinal cell homeostasis under physiological and stress conditions in Drosophila and in mice. In wild-type Drosophila, we show that dFatp is required and sufficient for expansion of LD size in retinal pigment cells (RPCs) and that LDs in RPCs are required for photoreceptor survival during aging. Similarly, in mice, LD accumulation induced by RPC-specific expression of human FATP1 was non-toxic and promoted mitochondrial energy metabolism in RPCs and non-autonomously in photoreceptor cells. In contrast, the inhibition of LD accumulation by dFatp knockdown suppressed neurodegeneration in Aats-metFB Drosophila mutants, which carry elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). This suggests that abnormal turnover of LD may be toxic for photoreceptors cells of the retina under oxidative stress. Collectively, these findings indicate that FATP-mediated LD formation in RPCs promotes RPC and neuronal homeostasis under physiological conditions but could be deleterious for the photoreceptors under pathological conditions.

Oxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids and oxidative stress within blood platelets.

The oxygenation metabolism of arachidonic acid (ArA) has been early described in blood platelets, in particular with its conversion into the potent labile thromboxane A2 that induces platelet aggregation and vascular smooth muscle cells contraction. In addition, the primary prostaglandins D2 and E2 have been mainly reported as inhibitors of platelet function. The platelet 12-lipoxygenase (12-LOX) product, i.e. the hydroperoxide 12-HpETE, appears to stimulate platelet ArA metabolism at the level of its release from membrane phospholipids through phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) and cyclooxygenase (COX-1) activities, the first enzymes in prostanoid production cascade. Also, 12-HpETE may regulate the oxygenation of other polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) by platelets, especially that of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). On the other hand, the reduced product of 12-HpETE, 12-HETE, is able to antagonize TxA2 action. This is even more obvious for the 12-LOX end-products from docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), 11- and 14-HDoHE. In addition, 12-HpETE plays a key role in platelet oxidative stress as observed in pathophysiological conditions, but may be regulated by DHA with a bimodal way according to its concentration. Other oxygenated products of PUFA, especially omega-3 PUFA, produced outside platelets may affect platelet functions as well.

Synthesis and Identification of AceDoxyPC, a Protectin-Containing Structured Phospholipid, Using Liquid Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry.

Fatty acids have many health benefits in a great variety of diseases ranging from cardiovascular to cerebral diseases. For instance, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which is highly enriched in brain phospholipids, plays a major role in anti-inflammatory or neuroprotective pathways. Its effects are thought to be due, in part, to its conversion into derived mediators such as protectins. 1-Lyso,2-docosahexaenoyl-glycerophosphocholine (LysoPtdCho-DHA) is one of the physiological carrier of DHA to the brain. We previously synthesized a structured phosphatidylcholine to mimic 1-lyso,2-docosahexaenoyl-glycerophosphocholine, named AceDoPC® (1-acetyl,2-docosahexaenoyl-glycerophosphocholine), that is considered as a stabilized form of the physiological LysoPtdCho-DHA and that is neuroprotective in experimental ischemic stroke. Considering these, the current study aimed at enzymatically oxygenate DHA contained within AceDoPC® to synthesize a readily structured oxidized phospholipid containing protectin DX (PDX), thereafter named AceDoxyPC (1-acetyl,2-PDX-glycerophosphocholine). Identification of this product was performed using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Such molecule could be used as a bioactive mediator for therapy against neurodegenerative diseases and stroke.

Docosahexaenoic acid-containing choline phospholipid modulates LPS-induced neuroinflammation in vivo and in microglia in vitro.

BACKGROUND: Neuroinflammatory processes are considered a double-edged sword, having both protective and detrimental effects in the brain. Microglia, the brain's resident innate immune cells, are a key component of neuroinflammatory response. There is a growing interest in developing drugs to target microglia and control neuroinflammatory processes. In this regard, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), the brain's n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, is a promising molecule to regulate pro-inflammatory microglia and cytokine production. Several works reported that the bioavailability of DHA to the brain is higher when DHA is acylated to phospholipid. In this work, we analyzed the anti-inflammatory activity of DHA-phospholipid, either acetylated at the sn-1 position (AceDoPC, a stable form thought to have superior access to the brain) or acylated with palmitic acid at the sn-1 position (PC-DHA) using a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced neuroinflammation model both in vitro and in vivo. METHODS: In vivo, adult C57Bl6/J mice were injected intravenously (i.v.) with either AceDoPC or PC-DHA 24 h prior to LPS (i.p.). For in vitro studies, immortalized murine microglia cells BV-2 were co-incubated with DHA forms and LPS. AceDoPC and PC-DHA effect on brain or BV-2 PUFA content was assessed by gas chromatography. LPS-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin IL-1ß, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α production were measured by quantitative PCR (qPCR) or multiplex. IL-6 receptors and associated signaling pathway STAT3 were assessed by FACS analysis and western-blot in vitro. RESULTS: In vivo, a single injection of AceDoPC or PC-DHA decreased LPS-induced IL-6 production in the hippocampus of mice. This effect could be linked to their direct effect on microglia, as revealed in vitro. In addition, AceDoPC or PC-DHA reduced IL-6 receptor while only AceDoPC decreased IL-6-induced STAT3 phosphorylation. CONCLUSIONS: These results highlight the potency of administered DHA-acetylated to phospholipids-to rapidly regulate LPS-induced neuroinflammatory processes through their effect on microglia. In particular, both IL-6 production and signaling are targeted by AceDoPC in microglia.

The pleiotropic effects of omega-3 docosahexaenoic acid on the hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease.

Among omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) is important for adequate brain development and cognition. DHA is highly concentrated in the brain and plays an essential role in brain functioning. DHA, one of the major constituents in fish fats, readily crosses the blood-brain barrier from blood to the brain. Its critical role was further supported by its reduced levels in the brain of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. This agrees with a potential role of DHA in memory, learning and cognitive processes. Since there is yet no cure for dementia such as AD, there is growing interest in the role of DHA-supplemented diet in the prevention of AD pathogenesis. Accordingly, animal, epidemiological, preclinical and clinical studies indicated that DHA has neuroprotective effects in a number of neurodegenerative conditions including AD. The beneficial effects of this key omega-3 fatty acid supplementation may depend on the stage of disease progression, other dietary mediators and the apolipoprotein ApoE genotype. Herein, our review investigates, from animal and cell culture studies, the molecular mechanisms involved in the neuroprotective potential of DHA with emphasis on AD.

Mechanisms of DHA transport to the brain and potential therapy to neurodegenerative diseases.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6 ω-3) is highly enriched in the brain and is required for proper brain development and function. Its deficiency has been shown to be linked with the emergence of neurological diseases. Dietary ω-3 fatty acid supplements including DHA have been suggested to improve neuronal development and enhance cognitive functions. However, mechanisms of DHA incorporation in the brain remain to be fully understood. Findings suggested that DHA is better incorporated when esterified within lysophospholipid rather than under its non-esterified form. Furthermore, DHA has the potential to be converted into diverse oxylipins with potential neuroprotective effects. Since DHA is poorly synthesized de novo, targeting the brain with specific carriers of DHA might provide novel therapeutic approaches to neurodegenerative diseases.