Azi-isoflurane, a Photolabel Analog of the Commonly Used Inhaled General Anesthetic Isoflurane.

Volatility and low-affinity hamper an ability to define molecular targets of the inhaled anesthetics. Photolabels have proven to be a useful approach in this regard, although none have closely mimicked contemporary drugs. We report here the synthesis and validation of azi-isoflurane, a compound constructed by adding a diazirinyl moiety to the methyl carbon of the commonly used general anesthetic isoflurane. Azi-isoflurane is slightly more hydrophobic than isoflurane, and more potent in tadpoles. This novel compound inhibits Shaw2 K(+) channel currents similarly to isoflurane and binds to apoferritin with enhanced affinity. Finally, when irradiated at 300 nm, azi-isoflurane adducts to residues known to line isoflurane-binding sites in apoferritin and integrin LFA-1, the only proteins with isoflurane binding sites defined by crystallography. This reagent should allow rapid discovery of isoflurane molecular targets and binding sites within those targets.

Inhalational anaesthetics and n-alcohols share a site of action in the neuronal Shaw2 Kv channel.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Neuronal ion channels are key targets of general anaesthetics and alcohol, and binding of these drugs to pre-existing and relatively specific sites is thought to alter channel gating. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of this action are still poorly understood. Here, we investigated the neuronal Shaw2 voltage-gated K(+) (K(v)) channel to ask whether the inhalational anaesthetic halothane and n-alcohols share a binding site near the activation gate of the channel. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Focusing on activation gate mutations that affect channel modulation by n-alcohols, we investigated n-alcohol-sensitive and n-alcohol-resistant K(v) channels heterologously expressed in Xenopus oocytes to probe the functional modulation by externally applied halothane using two-electrode voltage clamping and a gas-tight perfusion system. KEY RESULTS: Shaw2 K(v) channels are reversibly inhibited by halothane in a dose-dependent and saturable manner (K(0.5)= 400 microM; n(H)= 1.2). Also, discrete mutations in the channel's S4S5 linker are sufficient to reduce or confer inhibition by halothane (Shaw2-T330L and K(v)3.4-G371I/T378A respectively). Furthermore, a point mutation in the S6 segment of Shaw2 (P410A) converted the halothane-induced inhibition into halothane-induced potentiation. Lastly, the inhibition resulting from the co-application of n-butanol and halothane is consistent with the presence of overlapping binding sites for these drugs and weak binding cooperativity. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: These observations strongly support a molecular model of a general anaesthetic binding site in the Shaw2 K(v) channel. This site may involve the amphiphilic interface between the S4S5 linker and the S6 segment, which plays a pivotal role in K(v) channel activation.

The neuronal Kv4 channel complex.

Kv4 channel complexes mediate the neuronal somatodendritic A-type K(+) current (I(SA)), which plays pivotal roles in dendritic signal integration. These complexes are composed of pore-forming voltage-gated alpha-subunits (Shal/Kv4) and at least two classes of auxiliary beta-subunits: KChIPs (K(+)-Channel-Interacting-Proteins) and DPLPs (Dipeptidyl-Peptidase-Like-Proteins). Here, we review our investigations of Kv4 gating mechanisms and functional remodeling by specific auxiliary beta-subunits. Namely, we have concluded that: (1) the Kv4 channel complex employs novel alternative mechanisms of closed-state inactivation; (2) the intracellular Zn(2+) site in the T1 domain undergoes a conformational change tightly coupled to voltage-dependent gating and is targeted by nitrosative modulation; and (3) discrete and specific interactions mediate the effects of KChIPs and DPLPs on activation, inactivation and permeation of Kv4 channels. These studies are shedding new light on the molecular bases of I(SA) function and regulation.

The concerted contribution of the S4-S5 linker and the S6 segment to the modulation of a Kv channel by 1-alkanols.

Gating of voltage-gated K(+) channels (K(v) channels) depends on the electromechanical coupling between the voltage sensor and activation gate. The main activation gate of K(v) channels involves the COOH-terminal section of the S6 segment (S6-b) and the S4-S5 linker at the intracellular mouth of the pore. In this study, we have expanded our earlier work to probe the concerted contribution of these regions to the putative amphipathic 1-alkanol site in the Shaw2 K(+) channel. In the S4-S5 linker, we found a direct energetic correlation between alpha-helical propensity and the inhibition of the Shaw2 channel by 1-butanol. Spectroscopic structural analyses of the S4-S5 linker supported this correlation. Furthermore, the analysis of chimeric Shaw2 and K(v)3.4 channels that exchanged their corresponding S4-S5 linkers showed that the potentiation induced by 1-butanol depends on the combination of a single mutation in the S6 PVPV motif (PVAV) and the presence of the Shaw2 S4-S5 linker. Then, using tandem-heterodimer subunits, we determined that this potentiation also depends on the number of S4-S5 linkers and PVAV mutations in the K(v) channel tetramer. Consistent with the critical contribution of the Shaw2 S4-S5 linker, the equivalent PVAV mutation in certain mammalian K(v) channels with divergent S4-S5 linkers conferred weak potentiation by 1-butanol. Overall, these results suggest that 1-alkanol action in Shaw2 channels depends on interactions involving the S4-S5 linker and the S6-b segment. Therefore, we propose that amphiphilic general anesthetic agents such as 1-alkanols may modulate gating of the Shaw2 K(+) channel by an interaction with its activation gate.