Risk Factors for Antimicrobial Resistance in Turkey Farms: A Cross-Sectional Study in Three European Countries.

Food-producing animals are an important reservoir and potential source of transmission of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) to humans. However, research on AMR in turkey farms is limited. This study aimed to identify risk factors for AMR in turkey farms in three European countries (Germany, France, and Spain). Between 2014 and 2016, faecal samples, antimicrobial usage (AMU), and biosecurity information were collected from 60 farms. The level of AMR in faecal samples was quantified in three ways: By measuring the abundance of AMR genes through (i) shotgun metagenomics sequencing (n = 60), (ii) quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) targeting ermB, tetW, sul2, and aph3'-III; (n = 304), and (iii) by identifying the phenotypic prevalence of AMR in Escherichia coli isolates by minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) (n = 600). The association between AMU or biosecurity and AMR was explored. Significant positive associations were detected between AMU and both genotypic and phenotypic AMR for specific antimicrobial classes. Beta-lactam and colistin resistance (metagenomics sequencing); ampicillin and ciprofloxacin resistance (MIC) were associated with AMU. However, no robust AMU-AMR association was detected by analyzing qPCR targets. In addition, no evidence was found that lower biosecurity increases AMR abundance. Using multiple complementary AMR detection methods added insights into AMU-AMR associations at turkey farms.

Evaluation of a simplified Herd Health and Welfare Index for benchmarking in pig herds.

OBJECTIVE: Animal welfare is a topic of increasing public interest, especially interventions for improving the welfare of food-producing animals are demanded. The Herd Health and Welfare Index (HHWI) was developed for the EU-research project "EFFORT" (Ecology from Farm to Fork Of microbial drug Resistance and Transmission) to measure health and welfare without interfering with the daily work of farmers. As improving welfare by increasing animal health can contribute to the reduction of antimicrobial usage, it is of great importance to measure the quality of welfare and health of pig herds as precondition for implementing improvement measures. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The HHWI was tested under field conditions by assessing 20 German pig herds. The results were used for benchmarking to encourage continuous improvement. To test a future field of application, the HHWI results (HHWI points: minimum 10 points [very good] to maximum 30 points [very bad]) were compared to the amount of antimicrobial substances in the study herds measured by the Antimicrobial Treatment Index (ATI). RESULTS: The HHWI points of the study herds ranged from 11 to 25. When comparing the HHWI with data of antimicrobial treatments (measured by the ATI) no strong association could be shown. CONCLUSIONS: The preliminary data indicate that the HHWI cannot be statistically related to antimicrobial usage in the field. The number of risk factors for a higher antimicrobial use that are not directly linked to health and welfare parameters is so high that the theoretical influence of the welfare and health status is masked by the influence of many factors (the farmer's attitude, routine usage, group treatments). But preliminary results show a potential to use the index to measure the outcome of interventions within one herd. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The HHWI is an easy-to-use measuring tool to evaluate animal health and welfare. It can help to increase the continuity of monitoring results of health and welfare at herd level. In the long term, the HHWI could be used for regional or national assessments that could help to identify pig herds that are in need of improvement of their health and welfare status in order to increase the overall life quality of pigs in these herds.

Association of intestinal colonization of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae in poultry slaughterhouse workers with occupational exposure-A German pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Bacteria that have acquired antimicrobial resistance, in particular ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae, are an important healthcare concern. Therefore, transmission routes and risk factors are of interest, especially for the carriage of ESBL-producing E. coli. Since there is an enhanced risk for pig slaughterhouse employees to carry ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae, associated with animal contact as potential risk factor, the present study investigated the occurrence of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae in poultry slaughterhouse employees. Due to the higher level of resistant Enterobacteriaceae in primary poultry production than in pig production, a higher risk of intestinal colonization of poultry slaughterhouse employees was expected. RESULTS: ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae were detected in 5.1% (5 of 99) of the fecal samples of slaughterhouse workers. The species of these isolates was confirmed as E. coli. PCR assays revealed the presence of the genes blaCTX-M-15 (n = 2) and blaSHV-12 (n = 3) in these isolates, partly in combination with the ß-lactamase gene blaTEM-135. Participants were divided into two groups according to their occupational exposure and results indicated an increased probability of colonization with ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae for the group of 'higher exposure' (OR 3.7, exact 95% CI 0.6-23.5; p = 0.4). For intestinal colonization with ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae, a prevalence of 10% (3/30) was observed in the group of 'higher exposure' versus 2.9% (2/69) in the group of 'lower exposure'. Employees in working steps such as 'hanging' poultry in the process of slaughter and 'evisceration' seemed to have a higher risk for intestinal colonization with ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae compared to the group of 'lower exposure'. CONCLUSION: This study is the first of its kind to collect data on the occupational exposure of slaughterhouse workers to ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae in Europe. The results suggested that colonization with ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae is associated with occupational exposure in poultry slaughterhouses. However, the presence of ESBL-producing E. coli isolates in only 5.1% (5/99) of the tested employees in poultry slaughterhouses suggests a lower transmission risk than in pig slaughterhouses.

'Phasing out pig tail docking in the EU - present state, challenges and possibilities'.

BACKGROUND: European legislation dictates that pig tail docking is not allowed to be performed routinely (European Union. Council Directive 2008/120/EC of 18 December 2008 laying down minimum standards for the protection of pigs. OJ L 47, 18.2.2009). Nevertheless, tail docking is still practiced routinely in many European countries, while four countries stopped routine tail docking completely. Tail docking is also practiced in many countries outside Europe.The Federation of Veterinarians of Europe (FVE), the European Association of Porcine Health Management (EAPHM) together with the European Commission carried out an online survey to investigate the situation regarding the practice of pig tail docking and the provision of enrichment material across 24 European countries. It also focuses on the role of the veterinary profession and gives an overview on published literature regarding the challenges and possibilities related to the raising of pigs with intact tails. RESULTS: Fifty-seven (57) usable survey responses from 24 countries were received. On average 77% (median = 95%) of pigs are routinely tail-docked. In Finland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, less than 5% of the pigs are tail-docked. According to the respondents, 67% of pigs (median = 76%) across the 24 EU countries surveyed are given suitable enrichment materials. Training of veterinary practitioners, their role in advising the producer and undertaking a risk assessment of tail biting were more positively valued in countries that stopped routine tail docking than in countries that had not stopped routine tail docking. Initiatives such as training from national authorities to encourage abandoning tail docking and routine recording of tail biting at the slaughterhouse were identified as two successful items to promote the raising of pigs with entire tails. CONCLUSION: In many European countries the majority of the pigs are still routinely tail-docked, which is a violation of the European legislation. To stop routine tail docking it is necessary to raise the awareness and education about risk factors to prevent tail biting. The growing knowledge about the reasons for failing voluntary national initiatives as well as about successful measures taken by some countries to make pig production with intact tails feasible should be distributed throughout the EU pig producing community. The veterinary profession has a significant role to play in raising awareness, facilitate knowledge transfer and to identify risk factors and solutions on farm level for the benefit of pig health and welfare.

[Antibiotic Use and Reduction in Veterinary Medicine]. / Antibiotika in der Veterinärmedizin: Einsatz und Reduktion.

After a short history of the development of antimicrobial substances and the initially underestimated resistance problem, the paper describes the method of monitoring the use of antibiotics in food animals at farm level. The resulting benchmarking led to a remarkable reduction of the amount of antibiotics used in animals. However, it is also explained that, apart from reducing the use of antibiotics, the rules for "prudent use" of antibiotics have to be complied with. Concluding, a critical analysis of the effectiveness of the current interpretation of the "critically important antimicrobials for human medicine is discussed.

[Keeping pigs with undocked tails on conventionally producing farms. A feasibility study]. / Haltung von Schweinen mit nicht kupierten Schwänzen in konventionellen Betrieben. Eine Machbarkeitsstudie.

OBJECTIVE: In this feasibility study, weaning and fattening pigs with undocked and docked tails were kept simultaneously on four conventionally producing farms in Lower Saxony, Germany. It was the aim of the study to test management recommendations to avoid and reduce tail biting under practical conditions. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Before stocking, the farm-specific risk factors for tail biting had been analyzed and, if possible, reduced. Furthermore, on every farm, individual preventive measures, for example, additional pen enrichments and feed additives had been adopted. The farmers had been trained in animal observation, recognition of tail biting prior to outbreaks and measures to be taken when tail biting occurred. The tails of the pigs were examined daily by the farmer and every second week by the first author. Additionally, carcass characteristics were documented and analyzed. RESULTS: Tail biting was observed in every batch on every farm during the rearing period. Combining data from all the farms, a mean of 53.5% of pigs with undocked tails could enter the fattening period without tail lesions. At the end of fattening, only 24.2% of the undocked slaughter pigs had intact tails. Additionally, in the group with undocked tails, mortality was significantly increased (p = 0.0104) in comparison with the control group and abscesses were detected significantly more frequently in carcasses of undocked pigs (p < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: As a consequence of these results, a transition period of several years is recommended to give farmers the opportunity to learn step by step how to maintain animals with undocked tails and to prevent animal suffering due to tail biting.

Pig castration: will the EU manage to ban pig castration by 2018?

BACKGROUND: In 2010, the 'European Declaration on alternatives to surgical castration of pigs' was agreed. The Declaration stipulates that from January 1, 2012, surgical castration of pigs shall only be performed with prolonged analgesia and/or anaesthesia and from 2018 surgical castration of pigs should be phased out altogether. The Federation of Veterinarians of Europe together with the European Commission carried out an online survey via SurveyMonkey© to investigate the progress made in different European countries. This study provides descriptive information on the practice of piglet castration across 24 European countries. It gives also an overview on published literature regarding the practicability and effectiveness of the alternatives to surgical castration without anaesthesia/analgesia. RESULTS: Forty usable survey responses from 24 countries were received. Besides Ireland, Portugal, Spain and United Kingdom, who have of history in producing entire males, 18 countries surgically castrate 80% or more of their male pig population. Overall, in 5% of the male pigs surgically castrated across the 24 European countries surveyed, castration is performed with anaesthesia and analgesia and 41% with analgesia (alone). Meloxicam, ketoprofen and flunixin were the most frequently used drugs for analgesia. Procaine was the most frequent local anaesthetic. The sedative azaperone was frequently mentioned even though it does not have analgesic properties. Half of the countries surveyed believed that the method of anaesthesia/analgesia applied is not practicable and effective. However, countries that have experience in using both anaesthesia and post-operative analgesics, such as Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and The Netherlands, found this method practical and effective. The estimated average percentage of immunocastrated pigs in the countries surveyed was 2.7% (median = 0.2%), where Belgium presented the highest estimated percentage of immunocastrated pigs (18%). CONCLUSION: The deadlines of January 1, 2012, and of 2018 are far from being met. The opinions on the animal-welfare-conformity and the practicability of the alternatives to surgical castration without analgesia/anaesthesia and the alternatives to surgical castration are widely dispersed. Although countries using analgesia/anaesthesia routinely found this method practical and effective, only few countries seem to aim at meeting the deadline to phase out surgical castration completely.

A simplified evaluation system of surface-related lung lesions of pigs for official meat inspection under industrial slaughter conditions in Germany.

BACKGROUND: European and national administrative legislation require objective evaluation systems for organ lesions at pig slaughter. These results can be used as basis for herd health improvement programs by farmers and their consulting veterinarians. Various studies have shown that the current evaluation and recording of lesions by authorized meat inspectors are not reliable and produce significant inter-rater disagreement especially for lung lesions in pigs. The objectives of this study were to increase the usability of official meat inspection data by a developed and validated scheme and to analyze potential improvements in the reliability of the proposed system under industrialized slaughter conditions. RESULTS: A simplified evaluation scheme for surface-related lung lesions was developed based on morphometric evaluations of unaffected lungs with quantitative relationships of each lobe to the whole lung ("Rule of Tens"). Furthermore, a theoretical as well as a hands-on training program for meat inspectors was developed and applied. Based on 5,183 lungs, the authors established a baseline of the inter-rater reliability of current routine assessments of lung lesions as documented by meat inspectors compared with the assessments of an independent veterinarian using the developed simplified evaluation scheme. Most frequent inter-rater disagreements greater than 75% were found for moderate pneumonia. Sources of the deviations most frequently included misinterpretations of technical artifacts, which were erroneously assessed by the meat inspectors as pneumonic lung lesions. Results of the post-training investigation based on 4,646 lungs showed a significantly improved reliability of lung lesion evaluation and the inter-rater agreement increased in all respects. Especially the disagreement of recording moderate cases of pneumonia decreased in total to 15% deviations from reference. CONCLUSIONS: The presented simplified lung evaluation scheme showed its capability to standardize the evaluation of lung lesions according to administrative legislation under industrialial slaughter conditions. The reliability of official meat inspections can be significantly increased with the help of the presented scheme to assess surface-related lung lesions of slaughter pigs. Continuous standardization and optimization can be achieved by personalized training programs in the framework of quality assurance systems for meat inspectors.

Comparison of the phenotypic antimicrobial resistances and spa-types of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolates derived from pigs in conventional and in organic husbandry systems.

The purposes of this study were to identify differences in the phenotypic resistance to antimicrobials and in the spa-types between 273 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolates derived from conventional (n = 21) versus organic pig farms (n = 10) located in Germany. The susceptibility of the isolates against 19 antimicrobial agents was tested and then compared between the two different husbandry systems. A statistically significant difference was observed between the MRSA strains isolated on conventional and on organic pig farms for the antimicrobials tilmicosin (61.8% vs. 40.0%; OR: 2.42), clindamycin (63.5% vs. 45.7%; OR: 2.06), gentamicin (14.7% vs. 34.3%; OR: 0.33), apramycin (3.8% vs. 22.9%; OR: 0.13) and enrofloxacin (13.9% vs. 34.3%; OR: 0.31). Finally, the results of the susceptibility testing were analysed in order to determine the resistance pattern per isolate. Among the tested isolates a kind of"basic resistance pattern of MRSA"to penicillin, ampicillin and tetracycline was identified. The predominant spa-types in both groups were t011 and t034. Less frequently detected spa-types were t1430, t1197, t2510, t779, t1451 and t1250.

Establishment of serological herd profiles for zoonoses and production diseases in pigs by "meat juice multi-serology".

The most important pork-borne zoonotic diseases in humans such as Salmonelloses and Yersinioses cause only latent infections in pigs. Thus, the infection of pigs does not result in apparent or palpable alterations in the pig carcasses. This is the major reason, why the traditional meat inspection with adspection, palpation and incision is not able to control the food safety risks of today. The objective of this paper is to evaluate a set of serological tests, which provides a classification of pig herds into "zoonoses risk categories" as demanded by EU law and into "herd health risk categories" by using meat juice as diagnostic specimen for ELISA tests. Serological data that were obtained by testing meat juice samples from various pig herds were analyzed as proof of the "meat juice multi-serology" concept. For that, at least 60 meat juice samples from 49 pig herds each were taken between September 2010 and March 2011 and tested for antibodies against zoonotic pathogens (Salmonella spp., Trichinella spp., Yersinia enterocolitica and Toxoplasma gondii) and against pathogens causing production diseases (Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, influenza A virus subtype H1N1, influenza A virus subtype H3N2 and PRRSV). Apparent and true animal prevalence, herd prevalence values and intra-herd seroprevalence values as well as the predictive values for the herd and the animal prevalence values were calculated for each pathogen and each of the 49 randomly selected herds. The herd seroprevalence values (one seropositive sample per herd determined a "positive herd") for Y. enterocolitica, Salmonella spp., T. gondii, M. hyopneumoniae and PRRSV were higher than 80%, respectively, for the influenza A viruses between 60% and 14% and for Trichinella spp. 0%. Although all herds were located in the same area in the Northwest of Germany within a radius of 250 km, the intra-herd seroprevalence values for all tested pathogens, except for Trichinella spp., varied remarkably from herd to herd. In the case of Y. enterocolitica and T. gondii the intra-herd seroprevalence values varied even from zero to 100%. This shows that a serological risk categorization of pig herds regarding zoonoses and production diseases is meaningful if used for risk-based decisions in the framework of the new meat inspection concept and as part of the herd health management system. Thus, the development of a cost-efficient, time- and labour-saving test system for simultaneously detecting various antibodies should be the next step for an extensive implementation of the meat juice multi-serology concept.

Genotypic and phenotypic characterization of Staphylococcus aureus isolates from wild boars.

Eight Staphylococcus aureus isolates collected from 117 wild boars were characterized and compared to livestock isolates. They belonged to sequence types ST133, ST425, and the new type ST1643. The spa types were t1181, t6782, and the new types t6384, t6385, and t6386. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing and microarray-based genotyping confirmed the absence of important virulence/resistance genes.

[Comparing the results of the serological detection of Salmonella antibodies in blood serum and meat juice from different muscles from slaughter pigs]. / Untersuchungen zur Vergleichbarkeit der Ergebnisse des serologischen Nach- weises von Salmonella-Antikörpern bei Schlachtschweinen in Blutserum und Fleischsaft aus verschiedenen Muskelpartien.

The German Salmonella Monitoring Programme started by the QS-System in 2002 (Blaha, 2004) is mandatory due to the so-called "Salmonella Regulation for Pigs" since 2007 (Anonym, 2007). The Regulation does not clearly prescribe the specific muscle which is to be taken as source of the meat juice. Thus, at different slaughter plants meat samples are also taken from different muscles and several scientific papers describe various muscles as source of the meat juice, too. The objective of this study was to compare the serological results of meat juices from three different locations (diaphragm pillar, neck, belly muscle) to each other and to those of the blood serum from exactly the same animals. All samples were simultaneously tested for Salmonella antibodies by two serological tests (Salmo-type Pig Screen, LDL, Germany; HerdChek Swine Salmonella, IDEXX, Germany). Comparisons were carried out between the various sample kinds per animal and between the two test systems. The analysis of all results of the meat juices revealed in both test systems a clear decline of the OD% values from the diaphragm pillar to the neck to the belly muscle. The average OD% values of all samples were higher when measured by the HerdChek ELISA (IDEXX, Germany) than by the Salmotype ELISA (LDL, Germany), especially in blood serum. Since the results of the meat juice samples gained from the diaphragm pillar were in both test systems by far the closest to the results of the corresponding serum blood samples, it is recommended to amend the "Salmonella Regulation for Pigs" by prescribing meat from the diaphragm pillar as the only muscle for gaining meat juice.

[Investigations into the use of respiratory masks for reducing the MRSA-exposure of veterinarians visiting regularly pig herds--first experiences]. / Zum Einsatz von Staubmasken zur Senkung der MRSA-Exposition von Tieräirzten in der Bestandsbetreuung von Schweinebeständen- eine Pilotstudie.

The study presents first experiences on the controlled use of respiratory masks against Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in a multi-person veterinary pig practice. Seven veterinarians entered the trial (five wearing masks, two wearing no masks) after the veterinarians had performed a decolonisation protocol. The pig herds were visited regularly by the veterinarians during the study period. The five "trial" veterinarians wore gloves and respiratory masks for at least 30 days and 30 farm visits. The two "control" veterinarians wore gloves only. Nasal swabs were collected at a seven day interval. Swabs and ten masks per "trial" veterinarian were bacteriologically tested for MRSA including MLST- and spa-typing. The study showed a high MRSA-exposure for the veterinarians, since 68% of the masks were tested positive for MRSA. However, four vets stayed MRSA-negative while using the masks. Only one of the"trial" veterinarians became positive after two weeks. After the masks were not worn any more, two veterinarians returned to colonisation soon again. The two "control" veterinarians turned positive after 26 and 54 days, respectively. The high finding-rates of MRSA in the masks proof an enormous risk of nasal colonisation during routine work.The results of our study do not proof the potential of respiratory masks to prevent nasal colonisation of veterinarians with MRSA. However, there are no hints, that the proper use of masks could be a risk factor for becoming colonised. Further details of the proper use of masks and the quantification of their protective potential need further studies on a larger scale.

Serological Salmonella monitoring in German pig herds: results of the years 2003-2008.

The implementation of the European regulations regarding zoonoses demands objective and scientific statements regarding the status of the Salmonella prevalence in the national pig herds of all EU member states. Since 2002, the "QS Qualität und Sicherheit GmbH" has carried out serological Salmonella monitoring in German finishing pig herds. All data generated within the monitoring system are entered into the central database Qualiproof(®) (Qualitype AG, Dresden). The dataset investigated included 5,324,532 samples taken between January 1, 2003 and December 31, 2008, originating from 22,490 herds. Blood sera or meat juices were sampled following a standardized sampling scheme (up to 60 samples per year and herd, depending on herd size) using one of four evaluated ELISA-tests. Herds were classified into three categories I (0-20%), II (>20-40%), or III (>40%) by their percentage of yearly positive samples, which was re-calculated quarterly. The number of participating herds increased continuously since the start of the monitoring programme, with regional differences in the degree of participation. In 2008, 10.8% of all samples were positive. Adjusted for the distribution of samples in the German districts, the Salmonella prevalence in Germany was 7.9%. In general the distribution of herds in the categories was relatively stable over time. In the fourth quarter of 2008, 81.9% of the herds were allocated to category I, 14.0% to category II, and 4.0% to category III. However, the prevalence of Salmonella tended to decrease in herds that participated over a longer period. Differences could be found between German geographical regions. Seroprevalences were higher in the Northwest and the Northeast than in the South. This might be due to the relationship between Salmonella seroprevalences and farm densities per district, which were both higher in Northern than in Southern Germany. The Salmonella monitoring system will contribute to the reduction of the Salmonella prevalence in German pork production, when it is supplemented by control measures.

[Intra-herd prevalence and colonisation dynamics of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in two pig breeding herds]. / Intra-herdenprävalenz und Kolonisa- tionsdynamik von Methicillin-resistenten Staphylococcus aureus in zwei Schweine- zuchtbeständen.

This study presents data on the intra-herd prevalence and colonisation dynamics of Methicillin-resistant (MRSA) and Methicillin-sensible (MSSA) Staphylococcus aureus in two independent pig herds located in the Northwest of Germany. Swabs taken from the nasal cavity of sows and piglets, from the udder of the sows and from the direct environment of the pigs were tested microbiologically for MRSA and MSSA. The piglets were identified individually, tested at birth and then swabbed again every 3 weeks from birth to sale at the end of nursery with 25 kg (farm A), and at slaughter respectively (farm B). The intra-herd prevalence differed between the two farms remarkably. In addition, both farms differed concerning the point in time of the first detection of MRSA in piglets: While MRSA was detected in piglets on farm A within three days after farrowing, positive results in piglets did not occur before three weeks of life on farm B. An MRSA-positive result of the sow increased the number of MRSA-positive piglets on days 1-3. Moreover the results of this study support the suggestion, that an early colonisation of the piglets with Methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) has a protective effect. Over time, the pigs changed their pigs revealed that the proper cleaning and disinfection on one of the study farms had a reducing effect on the MRSA occurrence in the farrowing pens and in the flat deck.