Interstitial trophoblast cells: an enigmatic and variable component of the developing macaque placenta.

The distribution of cytokeratin-positive interstitial trophoblast cells in the endometrium of the macaque during placental development was examined. Such cells are moderately abundant only from the 15th through the 22th day of pregnancy, although there is considerable individual variation. During this period of gestation, interstitial trophoblast cells are distributed in the perivascular stroma immediately surrounding spiral arteries, including coils of arteries already invaded by endovascular trophoblast. The interstitial trophoblast cells are not seen to directly intrude into the smooth muscle of the spiral arteries. Very few interstitial trophoblast cells are present from days 12 through 14 of gestation when the arteries are first invaded by endovascular trophoblast. Even fewer interstitial trophoblast cells are seen after day 30 of gestation. The brief time in gestation when interstitial trophoblast cells are abundant coincides with a time when spiral arteries are undergoing rapid modification into patent uteroplacental arteries. It is suggested that during this period, the interstitial trophoblast cells may facilitate changes in shape of the spiral arteries by alterations of the perivascular connective tissue, perhaps through interactions with other cellular constituents rather than by directly modifying the arteries per se.

Placentation in the Hottentot golden mole, Amblysomus hottentotus (Afrosoricida: Chrysochloridae).

The placentation of the Hottentot golden mole (Amblysomus hottentotus) has been examined using light and electron microscopy and lectin histochemistry of nine specimens at both mid and late gestation. The placentae were lobulated towards the allantoic surface and the lobules contained roughly parallel arrays of labyrinthine structures converging on a central spongy zone. At mid gestation, the arrays were composed of an inner cellular and outer syncytial trophoblast layer, the inner layer enclosing scant connective tissue and fetal capillaries. Maternal blood spaces coursed through the outer trophoblast and were lined by trophoblastic microvilli; the blood spaces were narrow in mid gestation but enlarged near term, while the inner trophoblast layer became thinner and seemed to be syncytial. These features were confirmed by transmission electron microscopy. The microvillous surfaces and dispersed cytoplasmic particles were heavily glycosylated, as shown by lectin histochemistry, and exhibited changes with maturation, particularly a loss in N-acetyl glucosamine oligomers bound by Phytolacca americana lectin on the microvilli lining the maternal blood spaces and outer trophoblast particles. A substantial yolk sac was present both in mid and late gestation stages. It was clearly unattached to the uterus in the later stages. These morphological features are discussed in relation to the phylogenetic position of Amblysomus with respect to other members of Afrosoricida and Afrotheria.

Distribution and structure of efferent synapses in the chicken retina.

The visual system of birds includes an efferent projection from a visual area, the isthmo-optic nucleus in the midbrain, back to the retina. Using a combination of anterograde labeling of efferent fibers, reconstruction of dye-filled neurons, NADPH-diaphorase staining, and transmission electron microscopy, we have examined the distribution of efferent fibers and their synaptic structures in the chicken retina. We show that efferent fibers terminate strictly within the ventral retina. In two completely mapped retinas, only 2 fibers from a total of 15,359 terminated in the dorsal retina. The major synapse made by each efferent fiber is with a single efferent target amacrine cell (TC). This synapse consists of 5-25 boutons of 2 microm diameter, each with multiple active zones, pressed into the TC soma or synapsing with a basketwork of rudimentary TC dendrites in the inner nuclear layer (INL). This basketwork, which is sheathed by Muller cell processes, defines a private neuropil in the INL within which TCs were also seen to receive input from retinal neurons. In addition to the major synapse, efferent fibers typically produce several very thin processes that terminate nearby in single small boutons and for which the soma of a local amacrine cell is one of the likely postsynaptic partners. A minority of efferent fibers also give rise to a thicker process, terminating in a strongly diaphorase-positive ball about 5 microm in diameter.

Placental diversity in malagasy tenrecs: placentation in shrew tenrecs (Microgale spp.), the mole-like rice tenrec (Oryzorictes hova) and the web-footed tenrec (Limnogale mergulus).

Placentation in tenrecs of the subfamily Oryzorictinae, family Tenrecidae, has not been described previously. The structure of the placenta of this group and especially of the genus Microgale was investigated to determine its similarity or dissimilarity to previously described placentas of the tenrec subfamilies Potamogalinae and Tenrecinae. Fifteen specimens of the genus Microgale ranging from an early yolk sac stage to near term were available for study. Placentation in Microgale was found to be different from other tenrecids in that there is an early simple lateral rather than central haemophagous region. In addition, a more villous portion of the placental disk forms before the formation of a more compact labyrinth. Although the definitive placenta is cellular haemomonochorial, it lacks the spongy zone found in the Tenrecinae. Neither does it resemble the endotheliochorial condition found in the Potamogalinae. Of the two genera of the subfamily Oryzorictinae represented by single specimens, the placenta of Limnogale resembled that of the Microgale but Oryzorictes had several differences including a lobulated placental disk. It is concluded that there is more variation in placentation both within the subfamily Oryzorictinae and within the family Tenrecidae than would ordinarily be expected.

The fetal membranes of the otter shrews and a synapomorphy for afrotheria.

The otter shrews of mainland Africa are the closest relatives of the Madagascar tenrecs. We sought for similarities in placentation between the two groups and, in a wider context, with other mammals of the Afrotheria clade. Specimens of the Nimba otter shrew (Micropotamogale lamottei) were obtained from the Ivory Coast and examples of the giant otter shrew (Potamogale velox) from the Hill Collection. The Nimba otter shrew has a central haemophagous organ similar to that in tenrecs. The labyrinth of the Nimba otter shrew, however, is endotheliochorial with syncytial trophoblast enclosing the maternal vessels. On the other hand tenrecs have cellular haemomonochorial placentae and an associated spongy zone, which is not present in the Nimba otter shrew. The placenta of the giant otter shrew is also endotheliochorial. The central region of its placenta is particularly interesting, since the juxtafetal portion is clearly a haemophagous region whereas the labyrinth feeding this region is endotheliochorial. Thus there is considerable variation in placental morphology within Tenrecidae. Importantly, however, both otter shrews have a large allantoic sac divided into four intercommunicating lobes by two pairs of septal folds. A similar arrangement has been described for representatives of each of the remaining five orders within Afrotheria. This is significant because previous anatomical studies have failed to establish a single synapomorphy in support of Afrotheria.

Development of the haemophagous region and labyrinth of the placenta of the tenrec, Echinops telfairi.

Our purpose was to determine how the central haemophagous region and cellular haemomonochorial labyrinth of the tenrec placenta are formed. The haemophagous region is preceded by a region of invasion of the endometrium by trophoblast comprising a cytotrophoblast layer covered by syncytial trophoblast and contiguous with numerous masses of multinucleate trophoblast. The trophoblast intrudes into the endometrium, eliminating the stroma, although small vessels and clumps of glandular epithelium persist. This extensive central region is connected to the forming disk by a ring of chorioallantois covered by a single layer of columnar trophoblast. Later the multinucleate masses and syncytial trophoblast degenerate. The unilaminar cytotrophoblast remains, is elaborated into folds, and phagocytoses glandular secretion, cell debris and erythrocytes. As the central area is transforming, fetal capillaries move into the cytotrophoblast pads surrounding the central zone. Prior to this, the cytotrophoblast has formed a multilayered structure and interrupted maternal vessels to create an anastomotic network of blood spaces lined by cytotrophoblast. The invasion of fetal capillaries transforms this preplacental pad into a cellular haemomonochorial labyrinth with the uninvaded portion forming an underlying spongy zone. Thus interaction of the trophoblast with the endometrium is substantially different in the central zone compared to the area of the preplacental pad.

Structure of the definitive placenta of the tenrec, Echinops telfairi.

Until recently, tenrecs were classified with insectivores in the order Lipotyphla, but nucleotide sequence data suggest they have closer affinities with a group of African mammals called Afrotheria. The placenta of Echinops has not been described and no studies involving electron microscopy of the placenta of any species of tenrec have been published. We used light and transmission electron microscopy to examine fixed placentae of embryos ranging from 25-66 mm in length. The placental disk is situated in the antimesometrial portion of the bicornuate uterus. The greater part of the disk consists of a labyrinth underlain by a spongy zone. The interhaemal barrier is unusual in that the trophoblastic component is a single layer of cytotrophoblast. These trophoblast cells have thick areas especially near the nuclei and extensive thin flanges but only occasionally have membrane-closed pore regions. The luminal surface has isolated patches of microvilli, and pinocytotic vesicles are numerous both apically and basally. In the centre of the placental disk is an elaborately folded haemophagous region. The primary folds have allantoic endoderm at one surface and columnar cytotrophoblast at the other. These trophoblast cells have numerous lipid droplets and vesicles, and often contain large yellow pigment crystalloids. The labyrinthine zone ends abruptly at the margins of the placental disk. However, the endoderm and connective tissue of the allantois and a layer of cytotrophoblast extend beyond the placental disk as a paraplacental region. Some of these distinctive features of Echinops placenta are shared with individual afrotherians, but no significant characteristic of definitive placentation is shared by all the Afrotheria.

History of respiratory illness at the U.S. Naval Academy.

Throughout history, respiratory diseases have been a frequent cause of morbidity in U.S. populations. Because of stress, crowding, and naïve immune systems, military training populations are particularly prone to acute respiratory disease epidemics. An examination of the history of respiratory illness at the U.S. Naval Academy revealed that, in the earliest decades at the school, respiratory illness was a primary cause of both disease and mortality. With the advent of antibiotics and vaccines, most respiratory disease mortality has been reduced. However, even today, morbidity remains significant. Health concerns regarding respiratory diseases are heightened by emerging and reemerging respiratory disease agents that have increased antibiotic resistance and/or increased virulence. Enhanced surveillance and rapid diagnostic capabilities, placed in military settings, will increase knowledge of the epidemiology of many respiratory diseases. These strategies can lead to earlier treatment and prevention measures, thus halting the further transmission of disease and decreasing both morbidity and mortality. During the most recent history of the Naval Academy, acute respiratory infections have remained a primary cause of medical morbidity.

Structure of anchoring villi and the trophoblastic shell in the human, baboon and macaque placenta.

Anchoring villi of first trimester placentae of the macaque, baboon and human were examined by light and electron microscopy. The anchoring villi of the baboon and macaque are similar in having more elongated cell columns than those of the human and in having more extracellular matrix between cytotrophoblast cells. These species also have a thicker and more uniform trophoblastic shell. The generative region of cytotrophoblast cells adjacent to the villous mesenchyme is similar in all three species, with the aspect of the core abutting this area being lined by a thickened basal lamina. Similarly, migratory cytotrophoblast cells form extracellular matrix in all three species, but matrix-rich regions of the anchoring villi and shell are more extensive in the non-human primates. The extracellular matrix and especially the material resembling fibrillin may serve to strengthen the villi, particularly the elongated villi of the non-human primate, and also may prevent maternal cells migrating into the trophoblastic shell. The baboon and macaque cytotrophoblast cells that form this matrix tend to be linked by gap and desmosomal junctions and are in contiguous arrays, whereas those in the human that are blocked from reaching normal decidua form abundant extracellular matrix but have no gap junctions. Whether the lack of extensive invasion of the endometrium by baboon and macaque cytotrophoblast cells is related to the increased amount of extracellular matrix, their greater distance from the mesenchymal core, or their intercellular linkages is not known. The investigation of isolated villi from the macaque or baboon, as has been extensively carried out in the human, might help to determine whether the cytotrophoblast cells are intrinsically different or are responding to different environmental cues.

Development- and differentiation-dependent reorganization of intermediate filaments in fiber cells.

PURPOSE: To define the remodeling of lens fiber cell intermediate filaments (IF) that occurs with both development and differentiation. METHODS: Prenatal and postnatal mice were probed for the IF proteins phakosin, filensin, and vimentin, using light microscope immunocytochemical methodology. RESULTS: The pattern of vimentin accumulation in elongating fiber cells changed with development. Early in development vimentin first emerged predominantly as focal accumulations in the basal region of both epithelial and primary fiber cells. A light diffuse cytoplasmic staining was also noted. Later in embryonic development, and through maturity, vimentin in fiber cells was predominantly associated with the plasma membrane with no anterior-posterior polarity. Phakosin and filensin were first detected in the very latest stages of primary fiber elongation and continued to accumulate well after cells had completed elongation. Initially, these proteins accumulated in the anterior half of the fiber cells and were cytoplasmic in distribution. After P13, the pattern of initial distribution in differentiating fiber cells changed to a predominantly plasma membrane localization. Neither beaded filament protein showed focal basal accumulations. In mature lenses, all three proteins ultimately disappeared from the nuclear fiber cells. CONCLUSIONS: Beaded filament protein accumulation lags significantly behind both primary and secondary fiber cell elongation, suggesting a functional role subsequent to elongation. The subcellular distribution of vimentin and the beaded filament proteins showed marked differences within the cell, with differentiation, and with development. The differences in time of initial synthesis and in distribution of these IF proteins may bear on hypotheses about the role of IFs in fiber cell elongation and in structural-functional polarity of the fiber cell.

Evolutionary attempts at 4 eyes in vertebrates.

PURPOSE: To understand and compare the optical, histological, and ecological differences among 4 vertebrate species that have had evolutionary attempts toward 4 eyes. METHODS: An evolutionary attempt at 4 eyes in defined as the duplication or one or more structures integral to the refraction or interpretation of the visible spectrum for that animal. We reviewed and compared the known optics, histology, and ecology of each of these vertebrate species with attempts at 4 eyes including Anableps anableps, Dialomnus fuscus, Mnierpes macrocephalus, and Bathylychnops exilis. These animals have developed portions of ancillary eyes that have diverged from the primary globe in 3 different patterns. At least 1 specimen of each of those vertebrate species known to have 4 eyes was examined histologically and compared to the animal's ecology and current cladistic relationship. RESULTS: A anabteps has 2 distinct optical systems in each eye: an upper one for aerial vision and a lower system for aquatic vision. These systems feature separate retinae and an asymmetric lens to achieve focus in the aerial and aquatic vision, but only 1 optic nerve per eye. The visual system is split horizontally to function optimally in a "prone" position in the water. D fuscus is a terrestrial feeder and has a vertically (almost perpendicular to the long axis of the fish) divided cornea using pigment and a condensation of collagen as the divider, a single pupil, and a divided retina. The split cornea allows for the fish to remain vertical with 1 cornea in air and 1 cornea in water. M macrocephalus is probably closely related to D fuscus with a similar split cornea. B exilis is a mesopelagic inhabitant living at approximately 200 to 1,000 m and has an ancillary globe that "buds" off the primary globe. This secondary globe is directed inferiorly toward the ocean floor as compared to the primary globe, which is directed 35 degrees superiorly from the horizontal. Adult species of B exilis have 2 additional scleral bodies suspected to be lenses. If so, these structures would be capable of focusing light from the inferior field onto the superior retina, presumably adding to the panoramic inferior visual field. There are other mesopelagic species, including Styleophorus chordatus, Opisthoproctus grimaldii, Scopelarchus gantheri (or guentheri), Dolichopteryx binocularis, Benthalbella infans, and Evermannella indica, that have other unusual ocular mechanisms, such as retinal diverticulae and lens pads capable of reflection, but do not meet the definition of multiple eyes, as defined for purposes of this work. CONCLUSIONS: D fuscus and M macrocephalus are terrestrial feeders requiring aquatic and aerial vision, and hence have a split cornea for this purpose, and they probably use their anterior corneae for terrestrial vision. A anableps swims at the surface with combined aerial and aquatic vision for feeding and protection from predators. B exilis is a mesopelagic feeder requiring a binocular visual field in the horizontal meridian and above, and simultaneously is a bottom scavenger using an ancillary globe and perhaps scleral lenses for recognition of bioluminescent detritus. Although 2 of these models are related (D fuscus and M macrocephalus), these 4 fish represent 3 separate, distinct, and unrelated convergent evolutionary attempts toward 4 eyes in vertebrates satisfying the ecological needs of each. The 3 different models are unrelated evolutionarily and are found in 3 separate orders.

Vitronectin receptors are expressed by macaque trophoblast cells and play a role in migration and adhesion to endothelium.

The objective of this work was to develop an in vitro system that would extend the usefulness of the macaque as a model for studying trophoblast invasion and spiral artery modification. We sought to determine whether trophoblast cells isolated from early gestation macaque placentas expressed vitronectin receptors and tested the idea that these receptors play a role in trophoblast migration and adhesion. Cytotrophoblast cells were isolated from 40-100 day macaque placentas, cultured, and characterized by immunofluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. The cells expressed alphaV, beta3, and beta1 integrins on their surfaces. Immunohistochemical analysis of early gestation placentas and decidua basalis confirmed that intravascular trophoblast cells express alphaVbeta3/beta5. Using migration chambers we found that the trophoblast cells migrated towards vitronectin but not towards bovine serum albumin. This specific migration was blocked by preincubating the trophoblast cells with anti-vitronectin receptor (alphaVbeta3/beta5) antibodies. In other experiments, macaque trophoblast cells adhered to myometrial endothelial cells in a time-dependent manner and adhesion was significantly blocked by antibodies against alphaVbeta3/beta5 integrin. The results suggest that vitronectin receptors expressed by macaque trophoblast cells play a role in the migratory activity of these cells and may also be important in mediating attachment to endothelium.

Effects of 13-cis-retinoic acid on hindbrain and craniofacial morphogenesis in long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis).

Hindbrain and craniofacial development during early organogenesis was studied in normal and retinoic acid-exposed Macaca fascicularis embryos. 13-cis-retinoic acid impaired hindbrain segmentation as evidenced by compression of rhombomeres 1 to 5. Immunolocalization with the Hoxb-1 gene product along with quantitative measurements demonstrated that rhombomere 4 was particularly vulnerable to size reduction. Accompanying malformations of cranial neural crest cell migration patterns involved reduction and/or delay in pre- and post-otic placode crest cell populations that contribute to the pharyngeal arches and provide the developmental framework for the craniofacial region. The first and second pharyngeal arches were partially fused and the second arch was markedly reduced in size. The otocyst was delayed in development and shifted rostrolaterally relative to the hindbrain. These combined changes in the hindbrain, neural crest, and pharyngeal arches contribute to the craniofacial malformations observed in the retinoic acid malformation syndrome manifested in the macaque fetus.

Immunohistochemical localization of fibrillin in developing macaque and term human placentas and fetal membranes.

The objective of this study was to examine the developmental appearance of the extracellular matrix glycoprotein fibrillin in macaque placentas and fetal membranes and to compare this distribution to that seen in term human placentas and fetal membranes. Standard immunoperoxidase methods were used on paraformaldehyde-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues. At early gestational ages (26-30 days), fibrillin was found in cell columns and cytotrophoblastic shell, with weak staining in the villous stroma. Staining was abundant in the shell and columns at 53 days as well, and stronger staining was seen in the stroma of the chorionic plate and stem villi. Staining in the shell and remnants of the cell columns in later gestation continued to be positive, though variable. Generally, the strongest staining was present in the distal cytotrophoblastic shell. Stroma in the tips of anchoring villi was also strongly positive. Later in gestation, fibrillin was observed around the multilayered cytotrophoblast of the chorionic plate. Fibrillin was abundant in the stromal cores of human term placental villi. In early macaque amnion, fibrillin staining was abundant in a layer beneath the amniotic epithelium. Later in gestation, macaque chorioamnion staining was generally similar to human term chorioamnion staining, with the heaviest staining in portions of the compact and reticular layers. Fibrillin was sometimes localized in regions known to be rich in connective tissue microfibrils, but, in other regions known to have abundant microfibrils, fibrillin staining was weak. This suggests that some microfibrils in placenta may be composed predominantly of some other protein(s). The function of fibrillin in the various placental compartments is unknown at present. It may provide attachment points for cells while at the same time providing a strong, yet flexible, matrix to accommodate growth particularly in areas subject to shear stress.

Expression of platelet-endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM) by macaque trophoblast cells during invasion of the spiral arteries.

BACKGROUND: Placental development in higher primates is characterized by the invasion of uterine blood vessels by trophoblast cells. These cells proceed to migrate within uterine spiral arteries, opposite to the direction of normal blood flow. Observations indicate adhesion of intra-arterial trophoblast to endothelium as well as to adjacent trophoblast cells. METHODS: Macaque placenta and endometrial tissues were collected from day 15 of pregnancy (implantation begins on day 9) to term. Standard indirect immunoperoxidase methods were used to identify platelet-endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM), cytokeratins, and factor VIII-related antigen. RESULTS: In early specimens arterioles were often nearly occluded by cytokeratin-labeled trophoblast cells. Adjacent sections revealed the presence of PECAM on these trophoblast cells and on the endothelium. After day 30 the invaded arteries usually contained a re-formed lumen, and trophoblast cells were increasingly evident in the modified walls of arteries, where PECAM labeling was often reduced on cells distant from the lumen. Endothelium of both invaded and uninvaded uterine vessels retained PECAM reactivity throughout gestation. Trophoblast cells of the cell columns, cytotrophoblastic shell, and mid- to late-gestation chorionic plate were also reactive for PECAM. Villous cytotrophoblast cells did not express PECAM, but a dense border of PECAM was consistently present on the apical surfaces of syncytial trophoblast. CONCLUSIONS: Because PECAM functions as a counter-ligand for PECAM via homophilic binding, we conclude that this molecule is directly involved in adhesion of trophoblast cells to arterial endothelium in addition to maintaining cohesion between some subpopulations of cytotrophoblast cells.

Modification of endometrial arteries during invasion by cytotrophoblast cells in the pregnant macaque.

Fetal trophoblast cells invade endometrial blood vessels and gain access to maternal blood within two days after the onset of blastocyst implantation in macaques. Soon thereafter, cytotrophoblast cells migrate well into the lumina of arteries and subsequently invade arterial walls. Using electron microscopy and light microscopy we investigated the interactions between invasive cytotrophoblast cells and the cellular and extracellular components in the walls of endometrial arteries. The placentas and adjacent endometrium of 22 macaques (GD 17 to term) were examined. Spiral arteries containing migratory cytokeratin-labeled cytotrophoblast cells were identified at all stages examined. Early modification of each artery showed that a plug of intraluminal cytotrophoblast cells temporarily filled the arterial lumen in the vicinity of the trophoblastic shell. Distal to this plug the group of cells tapered as a continuous mass, filling only a portion of the lumen. Endothelial cells were displaced from their basal lamina by closely apposed cytotrophoblast cell processes. Soon thereafter these processes penetrated the basal lamina and achieved contact with smooth muscle cells of the tunica media. As cytotrophoblast cells infiltrated the arterial wall they hypertrophied and secreted extracellular matrix, thereby differentiating into intramural cytotrophoblast. The patent lumen of the artery was reestablished concomitant with the migration of intraluminal cytotrophoblast cells through the arterial tunica intima and into the tunica media. The presence of clusters of cytotrophoblast cells in the arterial wall results in discontinuity of the tunica media and dispersion of the smooth muscle. The combined changes result in expanded circumferences of invaded arteries as well as diminished ability to contract. In portions of arteries adjacent to the trophoblastic shell cytotrophoblast usually occupied the entire perimeter and thickness of the artery wall, while in areas distal only a portion of the wall was invaded. Despite extensive arterial modification, evidence of cell death among the fetal and maternal tissues involved was rare. By later gestation only a few intraluminal cytotrophoblast cells were seen. Intramural cells were surrounded by a thick layer of matrix, but maintained contact with adjacent cells through cytoplasmic processes, some of which formed gap junctions. Maternal cellular and connective tissue elements were excluded from the cytotrophoblast-matrix pads and the cytotrophoblast cells retained attributes of glycoprotein producing cells to term. Spiral arteries were modified well into the spongiosum layer of the endometrium, and some were modified into the myometrium.

Trophoblast cell-mediated modifications to uterine spiral arteries during early gestation in the macaque.

A specialized subset of invasive embryonic cytotrophoblast cells gains access to maternal uterine arteries early in the gestation of higher primates. These cells continue to migrate extensively within the lumina of spiral arteries, converting them to the highly modified uteroplacental arteries of pregnancy. Although trophoblast cell-mediated modifications are considered critical to the progress of normal pregnancy, few studies have addressed the cellular interactions between maternal arteries and embryonic cells in situ. Macaque placentas and endometrial tissues were collected from 12 animals from day 14 of gestation (blastocyst implantation begins on day 9) to day 49. Standard indirect immunoperoxidase methods were used to identify matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-1, MMP-3, MMP-9), cathepsin B, cathepsin D, platelet-endothelial cell adhesion molecule, cytokeratins, smooth muscle actin, CD68, and factor VIII-related antigen. Cytotrophoblast cells were located deep within spiral arteries in each of the specimens examined. In some examples tightly packed clusters of cytotrophoblast occluded the lumina of invaded arteries. Initial penetration of arterial tunica intima was revealed by discontinuities in the staining pattern for factor VIII and cytotrophoblast intrusion was indicated by cytokeratin staining of the trophoblast cells. Continued cytotrophoblast intrusion into the tunica media was apparent by gaps in the smooth muscle. MMP-1, MMP-3, and MMP-9 were localized within intraluminal and intramural cytotrophoblast. By contrast, neither cathepsin B nor cathepsin D were present, although both were seen in uterine macrophages and stromal cells. Upon reaching the surrounding uterine stroma the cytotrophoblast cells ceased migration. As cytotrophoblast accumulated in the arterial wall the vascular lumen expanded. Evidence of cell death was rarely encountered in associated maternal or embryonic tissues. We conclude that intra-arterial cytotrophoblast cells express several proteinases with substrate specificities sufficient to permit independent remodeling of the extracellular matrix comprising uterine artery walls. The remodeling of the arteries, which involves extensive displacement of maternal endothelium and smooth muscle, in addition to degradation and synthesis of extracellular matrix, is accomplished with little evidence of cell death or loss of the integrity of the arteries. This process provides an interesting example of cooperation between different types of interacting tissues from genetically distinct individuals.

Analysis of hindbrain neural crest migration in the long-tailed monkey (Macaca fascicularis).

Neural crest cells make a substantial contribution to normal craniofacial development. Despite advances made in identifying migrating neural crest cells in avian embryos and, more recently, rodent embryos, knowledge of crest cell migration in primates has been limited to what was obtained by conventional morphological techniques. In order to determine the degree to which the nonhuman primate fits the mammalian pattern, we studied the features of putative neural crest cell migration in the hindbrain of the long-tailed monkey (Macaca fascicularis) embryo. Cranial crest cells were identified on the basis of reported distributional and morphological criteria as well as by immunocytochemical detection of the neural cell adhesion molecule (N-CAM) that labels a subpopulation of these cells. The persistent labeling of a sufficient number of crest cells with antibodies to N-CAM following their exit from the rostral, pre-otic and post-otic regions of the hindbrain facilitated tracking them along subectodermal pathways to their respective destinations in the first, second and third pharyngeal arches. Peroxidase immunocytochemistry was also employed to localize laminin and collagen-IV in neuroepithelial basement membranes. At stage 10 (8-11 somites), crest emigration occurred in areas of unfused neural folds through focal disruptions in the neuroepithelial basement membrane in both the rostral and pre-otic regions, although there was little evidence of crest migration in the post-otic hindbrain. By stage 11 (16-17 somites), the neural folds were fused (pre- and post-otic hindbrain) or in the process of fusing (rostral hindbrain), yet crest cell emigration was apparent in all three areas through discontinuities in the basement membrane. Emigration was essentially complete at stage 12 (21 somites) as indicated by nearly continuous cranial neural tube basement membranes. At this stage the pre-ganglia (trigeminal, facioacoustic and glossopharyngeal) were consistently stained with N-CAM. The current study has provided new information on mammalian neural crest in a well-established experimental model for normal and abnormal human development, including its use as a model for the retinoic acid syndrome. In this regard, the current results provide the basis for probing the mechanisms of retinoid embryopathy which may involve perturbation of hindbrain neural crest development.

Macaque intra-arterial trophoblast and extravillous trophoblast of the cell columns and cytotrophoblastic shell express neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM).

BACKGROUND: During placental development in higher primates trophoblast cells originating in the cell columns migrate along endometrial surfaces to form the cytotrophoblastic shell. A subpopulation of these cells invades uterine arteries, where they migrate on the surface of endothelium, against the flow of blood. These intra-arterial cells become sequestered in the walls of the arteries where they are referred to as intramural trophoblast. Because migration depends upon binding the cell surface to other cells or to extracellular matrix, we investigated the potential role of neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM, CD56) in arterial invasion by trophoblast cells. METHODS: Tissues from macaque placentas and endometrium were fixed and embedded in paraffin. Standard immunoperoxidase methods were used to identify NCAM. RESULTS: NCAM labeled cells were present within spiral arteries of the decidua basalis. Trophoblast cells within or adjacent to the arterial lumen were distinctly NCAM positive, whereas most intramural trophoblast cells revealed reduced or no reactivity for NCAM. Maternal endothelial cells and villous trophoblast cells were negative. Uterine veins were tapped by trophoblast but did not contain migratory cells. The cell columns of early pregnancy contained cells outlined by rims of reactivity for NCAM. Labeled cells were also seen in the cytotrophoblastic shell, arranged as discontinuous groups. These groups variably occupied the entire thickness of the shell, or only the proximal (adjacent to the intervillous space) or distal layers of the shell. Later in gestation, the cytotrophoblastic shell developed a different pattern of staining, such that only cells located nearer to the intervillous space or near the tips of the anchoring villi were positive. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that NCAM is one of a group of cell adhesion molecules that participates in trophoblast cell adhesion during migration within maternal arteries. NCAM appears to be active in trophoblast-trophoblast cell interactions. It may also contribute to binding trophoblast cells to the surfaces of arterial endothelium as well as extracellular matrix molecules of the arterial wall. After secondary invasion into the arterial walls NCAM is down-regulated, possibly in response to the appearance of extracellular matrix capsules, where other cell adhesion molecules may appear.

Emigration of neural crest cells from macaque optic vesicles is correlated with discontinuities in its basement membrane.

It is established that cranial neural crest cells play critical roles in normal development, but the production of neural crest cells from the prosencephalon has received little attention, especially in primates. We therefore investigated the emigration into adjacent mesenchyme of neuroepithelial cells from macaque optic vesicles. Paraffin sections prepared from 13 embryos (Macaca fascicularis) representing developmental stages 10-14 were examined following standard immunoperoxidase staining for laminin and type IV collagen. At stage 10 the optic vesicle basement membrane was closely applied to that of the surface ectoderm except at its posterior border, where it contacted mesenchyme. The basement membrane was continuous and showed no evidence of cell migration. By stage 11 the optic vesicle basement membrane exhibited numerous gaps along its posterior border. These defects were frequently occupied by cells emigrating from the optic vesicle epithelium, as judged by the deflection of basement membrane fragments. Gaps were also seen along the lateral border, where migrating neuroepithelial cells were positioned between the surface ectoderm and optic vesicle. This cell migration appeared to increase during stage 12, with deterioration of all areas of the optic vesicle basement membrane. Basement membranes of the surface ectoderm, adjacent mesencephalon, and telencephalon anlage remained intact. By stage 13 the basement membranes of the optic vesicles were repaired and nearly continuous, with migrating cells rarely seen. Development of the optic cups at stage 14 indicated a near absence of basement membrane defects and emigrating cells.