Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities for Managing Potentially Volatile Police-Public Interactions: A Narrative Review.

We conducted a narrative review of existing literature to identify the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) necessary for officers who police in democratic societies to successfully manage potentially volatile police-public interactions. This review revealed 10 such KSAs that are frequently discussed in the literature. These KSAs include: (1) knowledge of policies and laws; (2) an understanding of mental health-related issues; (3) an ability to interact effectively with, and show respect for, individuals from diverse community groups; (4) awareness and management of stress effects; (5) communication skills; (6) decision-making and problem-solving skills; (7) perceptual skills; (8) motor skills related to use-of-force; (9) emotion and behavior regulation; and (10) an ability to treat people in a procedurally just manner. Following our review, we conducted semi-structured interviews (N = 7) with researchers who specialize in police training and adult education, interactions with individuals in crisis, and racialized policing, as well as two police trainers with expertise in de-escalation and use-of-force training. These interviews confirmed the importance of the 10 KSAs and highlighted two additional KSAs that are likely to be critical: understanding the role of policing in a free and democratic society and tactical knowledge and skills. To ensure that police-public interactions are managed effectively, police trainers may want to focus on the development and evaluation of these KSAs-something that is not always done currently.

Examining the impact of grip strength and officer gender on shooting performance.

BACKGROUND: Effective shooting performance relies heavily on sufficient grip strength. However, some standard issue pistols used by police services may have a trigger weight that causes problems for officers with insufficient grip strength, including female officers. The current study aimed to replicate previous findings, which show that grip strength is positively related to shooting performance. We also sought to determine what grip strength is required to achieve proficient scores on a standard police pistol qualification (PPQ) when a heavy trigger weight (i.e., 8lbs-12lbs) is used. Finally, we explored the relationship between officer gender and PPQ scores to determine if grip strength plays a mediating role in this relationship. METHOD: The dominant hand grip strength (in lbs) of 86 male and 32 female officers were recorded prior to their participation in their agency mandated annual PPQ. Officer gender, grip strength, and PPQ scores were analyzed to explore how they related to one another. RESULTS: Grip strength significantly impacted officers' ability to pass the PPQ, with female officers possessing lower grip strength compared to male officers, as well as achieving poorer scores on the PPQ. We determined that grip strengths in the range of 80lbs and 125lbs were needed to score approximately 85 % and 90 % on the PPQ, respectively; exceeding that of the average grip strength for the female officers in the study (M = 77.5lbs). Mediation analysis suggested that grip strength may mediate the relationship between officer gender and shooting performance, but studies with more power are needed to confirm that. CONCLUSION: To improve shooting performance as well as public and police safety, law enforcement agencies may need to consider including grip strength training in their conditioning regime or examine the adoption pistols with a lighter trigger pull weight (e.g., 6lbs).

A Reasonable Officer: Examining the Relationships Among Stress, Training, and Performance in a Highly Realistic Lethal Force Scenario.

Under conditions of physiological stress, officers are sometimes required to make split-second life-or-death decisions, where deficits in performance can have tragic outcomes, including serious injury or death and strained police-community relations. The current study assessed the performance of 122 active-duty police officers during a realistic lethal force scenario to examine whether performance was affected by the officer's level of operational skills training, years of police service, and stress reactivity. Results demonstrated that the scenario produced elevated heart rates (i.e., 150 beats per minute), as well as perceptual and cognitive distortions, such as tunnel vision, commensurate with those observed in naturalistic use of force encounters. The average performance rating from the scenario was 59%, with 27% of participants making at least one lethal force error. Elevated stress reactivity was a predictor of poorer performance and increased lethal force errors. Level of training and years of police service had differential and complex effects on both performance and lethal force errors. Our results illustrate the need to critically reflect on police training practices and continue to make evidence-based improvements to training. The findings also highlight that while training may significantly improve outcomes, flawless performance is likely not probable, given the limits of human performance under stress. Implications for the objective reasonableness standard, which is used to assess the appropriateness of force in courts of law, are discussed.

Excited delirium syndrome (ExDS): Situational factors and risks to officer safety in non-fatal use of force encounters.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Police use of force (UoF) encounters include individuals with Excited Delirium Syndrome (ExDS) with some frequency. Situational factors and risks to officer safety associated with these encounters have not been well studied. We examined the likelihood that subjects displaying various concomitant features of ExDS were under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol. We also examined the extent of subject violence, and the impact of this behaviour on the encounter (e.g., the odds of a struggle). Greater understanding of the prevalence of ExDS and the specific risk it represents to law enforcement officers and the subjects they encounter will guide appropriate policy and response strategies. METHODS: A prospective evaluation of a consecutive cohort of subjects involved in UoF encounters with police was conducted. Data were collected from January 2012 to December 2015. Consistent with previous research, the presence of six or more features was used to identify probable cases of ExDS. The odds that subjects in a state of probable ExDS were under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol was calculated and compared against subjects who exhibited less than three features of ExDS. In addition, the violent nature of subjects (e.g., the odds of a subject being in possession of a weapon) displaying various concomitant features of the syndrome was examined. The number of sudden and unexpected arrest-related death (ARDs) was documented. RESULTS: UoF occurred in 9006 of 10.9 million police-public interactions (0.08%). Of the UoF encounters, 156 (1.7%) subjects displayed six or more features of ExDS. With four recorded sudden and unexpected ARDs of violent and agitated subjects in our cohort, up to 6.3% of these subjects experiencing probable ExDS could be expected to be at risk of sudden death. Logistic regression analyses indicated that there were significantly higher odds that subjects exhibiting more features of ExDS (e.g., six or more) were under the influence of drugs. On the other hand, there were significantly lower odds that individuals exhibiting ExDS were under the influence of alcohol alone. In addition, those displaying a greater number of features demonstrated higher odds of engaging in assaultive behaviour, presenting a threat of grievous bodily harm or death, and being involved in a struggle that went to the ground with an officer. A slight increase in the presence of weapons was observed in encounters with probable ExDS. CONCLUSION: Our study provides important information to guide the development of policy and procedure in law enforcement. Police encounter a subject with ExDS 1 in every 58 UoF incidents (1.7%). Those individuals are at higher odds of being intoxicated with drugs according to officers' assessments and at risk of being further exerted during a struggle on the ground, both of which appear to play a major role in deaths associated to ExDS. There is a demonstrable increase in risk to officers and public safety from the violent behaviour displayed by subjects presenting a greater number of features of ExDS. Our data suggests that up to 6.3% of subjects in a state of ExDS could succumb to ARDs; however, we cannot comment on the prevalence of death for persons with ExDS who do not encounter police. Further research is needed to determine which force options optimize outcome for police and subjects. Additionally, research surrounding pathophysiology leading to death should focus on subjects with six or more features of ExDS. Ultimately, a better understanding in this area will contribute to improving the outcomes of these encounters for those suffering from ExDS and those tasked with assisting them.

Distinguishing features of Excited Delirium Syndrome in non-fatal use of force encounters.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: The frequency with which the police encounter non-fatal cases of Excited Delirium Syndrome (ExDS) has not been well studied. To date only a single prospective, epidemiologic study has been completed to determine the prevalence of the features of ExDS in police use of force (UoF) encounters. We examined a cluster of previously published features associated with ExDS to establish if these features were consistently recognizable across policing populations, thus demonstrating reproducibility. We further sought to determine whether any feature or number of concomitant features were likely to have physiologic significance. These are important first steps in determining a case definition of ExDS in a law enforcement and medical setting. METHODS: A prospective evaluation of a consecutive cohort of subjects involved in UoF encounters with police was conducted. Data were collected through the UoF reporting database of a large Canadian law enforcement agency from January, 2012 to December, 2013. The ten core characteristics of ExDS that have been observed in past research were documented by officers and, consistent with previous research, the presence of six or more features was used to identify probable cases of ExDS and a state of medical emergency. RESULTS: UoF occurred in 4799 of 5.4 million police-public interactions (0.09%). Of the UoF encounters, 73 (1.5%) subjects displayed six or more features of ExDS. Upwards of 9.2% of these subjects could be expected to be at risk of sudden and unexpected arrest-related death (ARD). Features with the highest odds of being presented with a large number of concomitant features included "Does not Fatigue", "Superhuman Strength" and "Tactile Hyperthermia" (287, 137 and 93 times higher, respectively). Moreover, "Tactile Hyperthermia" demonstrated the highest odds of being presented in individuals with a large number of features as opposed to those with fewer (33 times higher). CONCLUSION: We demonstrate that there is the ability for law enforcement officers to consistently recognize and report features of ExDS that have been associated with ARD. The varying presence of features across the examined categories indicates that some features are more distinguishing than others, which may enable narrowing the scope of features that represent ExDS and understanding its pathophysiology. The current debate surrounding whether or not ExDS exists limits first responders and emergency physicians in their ability to increase awareness, improve training and interventions, and design appropriate policy and response protocols to reduce ARDs.