Laccases as palladium oxidases.

The first example of a coupled catalytic system involving an enzyme and a palladium(ii) catalyst competent for the aerobic oxidation of alcohol in mild conditions is described. In the absence of dioxygen, the fungal laccase LAC3 is reduced by a palladium(0) species as evidenced by the UV/VIS and ESR spectra of the enzyme. During the oxidation of veratryl alcohol performed in water, at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, LAC3 regenerates the palladium catalyst, is reduced and catalyzes the four-electron reduction of dioxygen into water with no loss of enzyme activity. The association of a laccase with a water-soluble palladium complex results in a 7-fold increase in the catalytic efficiency of the complex. This is the first step in the design of a family of renewable palladium catalysts for aerobic oxidation.

A multi-addressable switch based on the dimethyldihydropyrene photochrome with remarkable proton-triggered photo-opening efficiency.

A series of photochromic derivatives based on the trans-10b,10c-dimethyl-10b,10c-dihydropyrene (DHP, "closed form") skeleton has been synthesized and their photoisomerization leading to the corresponding cyclophanediene (CPD, "open form") isomers has been investigated by UV/Vis and (1) H NMR spectroscopies. Substitution of the DHP core with electron-withdrawing pyridinium groups was found to have major effects on the photoisomerization efficiency, the most remarkable examples being to enhance the quantum yield of the opening reaction and to allow fast and quantitative conversions at much lower radiant energies. This effect was rationalized by theoretical calculations. We also show that the reverse reaction, that is, going from the open form to the closed form, can be electrochemically triggered by oxidation of the CPD unit and that the photo-opening properties of pyridine-substituted DHPs can be efficiently tuned by protonation, the system behaving as a multi-addressable molecular switch. These multi-addressable photochromes show promise for the development of responsive materials.

Probing kojic acid binding to tyrosinase enzyme: insights from a model complex and QM/MM calculations.

An unambiguous picture of the interaction between the inhibitor kojic acid and a model of the dicopper active site of tyrosinase is reported. The observed binding mode probed on bacterial enzyme is confirmed and further refined by QM/MM calculations.

Unsymmetrical binding modes of the HOPNO inhibitor of tyrosinase: from model complexes to the enzyme.

The deciphering of the binding mode of tyrosinase (Ty) inhibitors is essential to understand how to regulate the tyrosinase activity. In this paper, by combining experimental and theoretical methods, we studied an unsymmetrical tyrosinase functional model and its interaction with 2-hydroxypyridine-N-oxide (HOPNO), a new and efficient competitive inhibitor for bacterial Ty. The tyrosinase model was a dinuclear copper complex bridged by a chelated ring with two different complexing arms (namely (bis(2-ethylpyridyl)amino)methyl and (bis(2-methylpyridyl)amino)methyl). The geometrical asymmetry of the complex induces an unsymmetrical binding of HOPNO. Comparisons have been made with the binding modes obtained on similar symmetrical complexes. Finally, by using quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) calculations, we studied the binding mode in tyrosinase from a bacterial source. A new unsymmetrical binding mode was obtained, which was linked to the second coordination sphere of the enzyme.

Versatile effects of aurone structure on mushroom tyrosinase activity.

Elucidation of the binding modes of Ty inhibitors is an important step for in-depth studies on how to regulate tyrosinase activity. In this paper we highlight the extraordinarily versatile effects of the aurone structure on mushroom Ty activity. Depending on the position of the OH group on the B-ring, aurones can behave either as substrates or as hyperbolic activators. The synthesis of a hybrid aurone through combination of an aurone moiety with HOPNO (2-hydroxypyridine N-oxide), a good metal chelate, led us to a new, efficient, mixed inhibitor for mushroom tyrosinase. Another important feature pointed out by our study is the presence of more than one site for aurone compounds on mushroom tyrosinase. Because study of the binding of the hybrid aurone was difficult to perform with the enzyme, we undertook binding studies with tyrosinase functional models in order to elucidate the binding mode (chelating vs. bridging) on a dicopper(II) center. Use of EPR combined with theoretical DFT calculations allowed us to propose a preferred chelating mode for the interaction of the hybrid aurone with a dicopper(II) center.

The versatile binding mode of transition-state analogue inhibitors of tyrosinase towards dicopper(II) model complexes: experimental and theoretical investigations.

We describe 2-mercaptopyridine-N-oxide (HSPNO) as a new and efficient competitive inhibitor of mushroom tyrosinase (K(IC) =3.7 µM). Binding studies of HSPNO and 2-hydroxypyridine-N-oxide (HOPNO) on dinuclear copper(II) complexes [Cu(2)(BPMP)(µ-OH)](ClO(4))(2) (1; HBPMP=2,6-bis[bis(2-pyridylmethyl)aminomethyl]-4-methylphenol) and [Cu(2)(BPEP)(µ-OH)](ClO(4))(2)) (2; HBPEP=2,6-bis{bis[2-(2-pyridyl)ethyl]aminomethyl}-4-methylphenol), known to be functional models for the tyrosinase diphenolase activity, have been performed. A combination of structural data, spectroscopic studies, and DFT calculations evidenced the adaptable binding mode (bridging versus chelating) of HOPNO in relation to the geometry and chelate size of the dicopper center. For comparison, binding studies of HSPNO and kojic acid (5-hydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)-4-pyrone) on dinuclear complexes were performed. A theoretical approach has been developed and validated on HOPNO adducts to compare the binding mode on the model complexes. It has been applied for HSPNO and kojic acid. Although results for HSPNO were in line with those obtained with HOPNO, thus reflecting their chemical similarity, we showed that the bridging mode was the most preferential binding mode for kojic acid on both complexes.

Crystallographic snapshots of the reaction of aromatic C-H with O(2) catalysed by a protein-bound iron complex.

Chemical reactions inside single crystals are quite rare because crystallinity is difficult to retain owing to atomic rearrangements. Protein crystals in general have a high solvent content. This allows for some molecular flexibility, which makes it possible to trap reaction intermediates of enzymatic reactions without disrupting the crystal lattice. A similar approach has not yet been fully implemented in the field of inorganic chemistry. Here, we have combined model chemistry and protein X-ray crystallography to study the intramolecular aromatic dihydroxylation by an arene-containing protein-bound iron complex. The bound complex was able to activate dioxygen in the presence of a reductant, leading to the formation of catechol as the sole product. The structure determination of four of the catalytic cycle intermediates and the end product showed that the hydroxylation reaction implicates an iron peroxo, generated by reductive O(2) activation, an intermediate already observed in iron monooxygenases. This strategy also provided unexpected mechanistic details such as the rearrangement of the iron coordination sphere on metal reduction.

The protein environment drives selectivity for sulfide oxidation by an artificial metalloenzyme.

MAGIC Mn-salen mETALLOZYME: The design of an original, artificial, inorganic, complex-protein adduct, has led to a better understanding of the synergistic effects of both partners. The exclusive formation of sulfoxides by the hybrid biocatalyst, as opposed to sulfone in the case of the free inorganic complex, highlights the modulating role of the inorganic-complex-binding site in the protein. Artificial metalloenzymes based on the incorporation of Mn-salen complexes into human serum albumin display high efficiency and selectivity for sulfoxide production during sulfide oxidation. The reactions carried out by the artificial metallozymes are comparable to those carried out by natural biocatalysis. We have found that the polarity of the protein environment is crucial for selectivity and that a synergy between both partners of the hybrid results in the novel activity.

Structural characterization of a putative endogenous metal chelator in the periplasmic nickel transporter NikA.

Escherichia coli and related bacteria require nickel for the synthesis of hydrogenases, enzymes involved in hydrogen oxidation and proton reduction. Nickel transport to the cytoplasm depends on five proteins, NikA-E. We have previously reported the three-dimensional structure of the soluble periplasmic nickel transporter NikA in a complex with FeEDTA(H 2O) (-). We have now determined the structure of EDTA-free NikA and have found that it binds a small organic molecule that contributes three ligands to the coordination of a transition metal ion. Unexpectedly, His416, which was far from the metal-binding site in the FeEDTA(H 2O) (-)-NikA complex, becomes the fourth observed ligand to the metal. The best match to the omit map electron density is obtained for butane-1,2,4-tricarboxylate (BTC). Our attempts to obtain a BTC-Ni-NikA complex using apo protein and commercial reagents resulted in nickel-free BTC-NikA. Overall, our results suggest that nickel transport in vivo requires a specific metallophore that may be BTC.