Precise analysis of single small extracellular vesicles using flow cytometry.

Methods that enable specific and sensitive quantification of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) using flow cytometry are still under development. Aggregation or adsorption of antibodies causes sub-nano sized particles or non-specific binding and largely affects the results of flow cytometric analysis of single sEVs. Comparison of control IgG and target-specific IgG is inappropriate because they have different characters. Here, we evaluate four preparation methods for flow cytometry, including ultracentrifugation, density gradient centrifugation, size exclusion chromatography (SEC), and the TIM4-affinity method by using tetraspanin-deficient sEVs. The ultracentrifugation or density gradient centrifugation preparation method has large false-positive rates for tetraspanin staining. Conversely, preparation methods using SEC or the TIM4-affinity method show specific detection of single sEVs, which elucidate the roles of sEV biogenesis regulators in the generation of sEV subpopulations. The methods are also useful for the detection of rare disease-related markers, such as PD-L1. Flow cytometric analysis using SEC or the TIM4-affinity method could accelerate research into sEV biogenesis and the development of sEV-based diagnostics and therapies.

Extracellular vesicles promote silica nanoparticle aggregation that inhibits silica-induced cytotoxicity.

Amorphous silica has been approved as a food and pharmaceutical additive. However, its potential to enhance the carcinogenicity of epithelial cells is incontrovertible. With their expanded surface area per unit mass and distinctive cellular incorporation, nano-sized silica particles (nSPs) exhibit heightened cytotoxicity compared to micrometer-sized counterparts. The precise effect of nSPs on the generation of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) within endosomes after cellular uptake remains unclear. In the present study, we explored the secretion of sEVs from cells and their functional implications following exposure to nSPs. Our findings demonstrate that nSP50 exposure not only induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) but also promoted the maturation of multivesicular endosomes (MVEs) along with the secretion of sEVs in A549 cells. Inhibition of sEV secretion using GW4869 and apoptosis activator 2 exacerbated nSP50-induced EMT, indicating that sEV secretion may suppress EMT. Analysis of the function of sEV in a cell-free system revealed that co-incubation of sEVs with nSP50 led to the formation of micrometer-sized aggregates, which exhibited limited uptake efficiency within A549 cells. These results strongly suggest that the secretion of sEVs plays a protective role against the cytotoxicity attributed to nSP50 exposure.

Glycogen synthase kinase-3ß participates in acquired resistance to gemcitabine in pancreatic cancer.

Acquisition of resistance to gemcitabine is a challenging clinical and biological hallmark property of refractory pancreatic cancer. Here, we investigated whether glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3ß, an emerging therapeutic target in various cancer types, is mechanistically involved in acquired resistance to gemcitabine in human pancreatic cancer. This study included 3 gemcitabine-sensitive BxPC-3 cell-derived clones (BxG30, BxG140, BxG400) that acquired stepwise resistance to gemcitabine and overexpressed ribonucleotide reductase (RR)M1. Treatment with GSK3ß-specific inhibitor alone attenuated the viability and proliferation of the gemcitabine-resistant clones, while synergistically enhancing the efficacy of gemcitabine against these clones and their xenograft tumors in rodents. The gemcitabine-resensitizing effect of GSK3ß inhibition was associated with decreased expression of RRM1, reduced phosphorylation of Rb protein, and restored binding of Rb to the E2 transcription factor (E2F)1. This was followed by decreased E2F1 transcriptional activity, which ultimately suppressed the expression of E2F1 transcriptional targets including RRM1, CCND1 encoding cyclin D1, thymidylate synthase, and thymidine kinase 1. These results suggested that GSK3ß participates in the acquisition of gemcitabine resistance by pancreatic cancer cells via impairment of the functional interaction between Rb tumor suppressor protein and E2F1 pro-oncogenic transcription factor, thereby highlighting GSK3ß as a promising target in refractory pancreatic cancer. By providing insight into the molecular mechanism of gemcitabine resistance, this study identified a potentially novel strategy for pancreatic cancer chemotherapy.

Potential therapeutic effect of targeting glycogen synthase kinase 3ß in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma.

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is a common gastrointestinal cancer and is often refractory to current therapies. Development of efficient therapeutic strategies against ESCC presents a major challenge. Glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)3ß has emerged as a multipotent therapeutic target in various diseases including cancer. Here we investigated the biology and pathological role of GSK3ß in ESCC and explored the therapeutic effects of its inhibition. The expression of GSK3ß and tyrosine (Y)216 phosphorylation-dependent activity was higher in human ESCC cell lines and primary tumors than untransformed esophageal squamous TYNEK-3 cells from an ESCC patient and tumor-adjacent normal esophageal mucosa. GSK3ß-specific inhibitors and small interfering (si)RNA-mediated knockdown of GSK3ß attenuated tumor cell survival and proliferation, while inducing apoptosis in ESCC cells and their xenograft tumors in mice. GSK3ß inhibition spared TYNEK-3 cells and the vital organs of mice. The therapeutic effect of GSK3ß inhibition in tumor cells was associated with G0/G1- and G2/M-phase cell cycle arrest, decreased expression of cyclin D1 and cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)4 and increased expression of cyclin B1. These results suggest the tumor-promoting role of GSK3ß is via cyclin D1/CDK4-mediated cell cycle progression. Consequently, our study provides a biological rationale for GSK3ß as a potential therapeutic target in ESCC.

Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3ß in Cancer Biology and Treatment.

Glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)3ß is a multifunctional serine/threonine protein kinase with more than 100 substrates and interacting molecules. GSK3ß is normally active in cells and negative regulation of GSK3ß activity via phosphorylation of its serine 9 residue is required for most normal cells to maintain homeostasis. Aberrant expression and activity of GSK3ß contributes to the pathogenesis and progression of common recalcitrant diseases such as glucose intolerance, neurodegenerative disorders and cancer. Despite recognized roles against several proto-oncoproteins and mediators of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition, deregulated GSK3ß also participates in tumor cell survival, evasion of apoptosis, proliferation and invasion, as well as sustaining cancer stemness and inducing therapy resistance. A therapeutic effect from GSK3ß inhibition has been demonstrated in 25 different cancer types. Moreover, there is increasing evidence that GSK3ß inhibition protects normal cells and tissues from the harmful effects associated with conventional cancer therapies. Here, we review the evidence supporting aberrant GSK3ß as a hallmark property of cancer and highlight the beneficial effects of GSK3ß inhibition on normal cells and tissues during cancer therapy. The biological rationale for targeting GSK3ß in the treatment of cancer is also discussed at length.

Glycogen synthase kinase 3ß as a potential therapeutic target in synovial sarcoma and fibrosarcoma.

Soft tissue sarcomas (STSs) are a rare cancer type. Almost half are unresponsive to multi-pronged treatment and might therefore benefit from biologically targeted therapy. An emerging target is glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)3ß, which is implicated in various diseases including cancer. Here, we investigated the expression, activity and putative pathological role of GSK3ß in synovial sarcoma and fibrosarcoma, comprising the majority of STS that are encountered in orthopedics. Expression of the active form of GSK3ß (tyrosine 216-phosphorylated) was higher in synovial sarcoma (SYO-1, HS-SY-II, SW982) and in fibrosarcoma (HT1080) tumor cell lines than in untransformed fibroblast (NHDF) cells that are assumed to be the normal mesenchymal counterpart cells. Inhibition of GSK3ß activity by pharmacological agents (AR-A014418, SB-216763) or of its expression by RNA interference suppressed the proliferation of sarcoma cells and their invasion of collagen gel, as well as inducing their apoptosis. These effects were associated with G0/G1-phase cell cycle arrest and decreased expression of cyclin D1, cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)4 and matrix metalloproteinase 2. Intraperitoneal injection of the GSK3ß inhibitors attenuated the growth of SYO-1 and HT1080 xenografts in athymic mice without obvious detrimental effects. It also mitigated cell proliferation and induced apoptosis in the tumors of mice. This study indicates that increased activity of GSK3ß in synovial sarcoma and fibrosarcoma sustains tumor proliferation and invasion through the cyclin D1/CDK4-mediated pathway and enhanced extracellular matrix degradation. Our results provide a biological basis for GSK3ß as a new and promising therapeutic target for these STS types.