A model for the gamma delta resolvase synaptic complex.

The serine recombinase gamma delta resolvase performs site-specific recombination in an elaborate synaptic complex containing 12 resolvase subunits and two 114-base pair res sites. Here we present an alternative structural model for the synaptic complex. Resolvase subunits in the complex contact their neighbors in equivalent ways, using three principal interactions, one of which is a newly proposed synaptic interaction. Evidence in support of this interaction is provided by mutations at the interface that either enable resolvase to synapse two copies of site I or inhibit synapsis of complete res sites. In our model, the two crossover sites are far apart, separated by the resolvase catalytic domains bound to them. Thus, recombination would require a substantial rearrangement of resolvase subunits or domains.

Topological selectivity of a hybrid site-specific recombination system with elements from Tn3 res/resolvase and bacteriophage P1 loxP/Cre.

In order to investigate the functions of the parts of the Tn 3 recombination site res, we created hybrid recombination sites by placing the loxP site for Cre recombinase adjacent to the "accessory" resolvase-binding sites II and III of res. The efficiency and product topology of in vitro recombination by Cre between two of these hybrid sites were affected by the addition of Tn 3 resolvase. The effects of resolvase addition were dependent on the relative orientation and spacing of the elements of the hybrid sites. Substrates with sites II and III of res close to loxP gave specific catenated or knotted products (four-noded catenane, three-noded knot) when resolvase and Cre were added together. The product topological complexity increased when the length of the spacer DNA segment between loxP and res site II was increased. Similar resolvase-induced effects on Cre recombination product topology were observed in reactions of substrates with loxP sites adjacent to full res sites. The results demonstrate that the res accessory sites are sufficient to impose topological selectivity on recombination, and imply that intertwining of two sets of accessory sites defines the simple catenane product topology in normal resolvase-mediated recombination. They are also consistent with current models for the mechanism of catalysis by Cre.

Modelling in Escherichia coli of mutations in mitoribosomal protein S12: novel mutant phenotypes of rpsL.

The rpsL gene of Escherichia coli encodes the highly conserved rps12 protein of the ribosomal accuracy centre. We have used the E. coli gene to model the phenotypic effects of specific substitutions found in the mitochondrial gene for rps12. Variants created by in vitro mutagenesis were tested in two different plasmid vector systems, in both streptomycin-sensitive and streptomycin-resistant hosts. A substitution with respect to eubacterial rps12 (K87-->Q), found in all metazoan and fungal mitochondrial orthologues thus far studied, is associated with low-level resistance to streptomycin and a modest (15%) drop in translational elongation rate, but without significant effects on translational accuracy. An amino-acid replacement at a highly conserved leucine residue (L56-->H), associated with the phenotype of sensitivity to mechanical vibration and hemizygous female lethality in Drosophila, creates a functionally inactive but structurally stable protein that is not assembled into ribosomes. The presence in the cell of the mutant, but not wild-type, rpsL greatly downregulates the level of a prominent polypeptide of approximately 50 kDa. These results indicate novel structure-function relationships in rps12 genes affecting translational function, ribosome assembly and drug sensitivity, and indicate a novel regulatory pathway that may influence ribosome biogenesis.

Mutants of Tn3 resolvase which do not require accessory binding sites for recombination activity.

Tn3 resolvase promotes site-specific recombination between two res sites, each of which has three resolvase dimer-binding sites. Catalysis of DNA-strand cleavage and rejoining occurs at binding site I, but binding sites II and III are required for recombination. We used an in vivo screen to detect resolvase mutants that were active on res sites with binding sites II and III deleted (that is, only site I remaining). Mutations of amino acids Asp102 (D102) or Met103 (M103) were sufficient to permit catalysis of recombination between site I and a full res, but not between two copies of site I. A double mutant resolvase, with a D102Y mutation and an additional activating mutation at Glu124 (E124Q), recombined substrates containing only two copies of site I, in vivo and in vitro. In these novel site Ixsite I reactions, product topology is no longer restricted to the normal simple catenane, indicating synapsis by random collision. Furthermore, the mutants have lost the normal specificity for directly repeated sites and supercoiled substrates; that is, they promote recombination between pairs of res sites in linear molecules, or in inverted repeat in a supercoiled molecule, or in separate molecules.

Tn3 resolvase catalyses multiple recombination events without intermediate rejoining of DNA ends.

Resolvases and DNA invertases catalyse site-specific recombination by a concerted cut-and-religate mechanism. Topological data strongly suggest a rotational movement of the DNA half-sites during recombination: in an "iterative" mode of reaction, after cleavage of all four strands of the two recombining sites, the recombinase-linked half-sites seem to rotate through multiple steps of 180 degrees prior to final religation. However, current structural data provide no clear support for the postulated corresponding rotation of enzyme subunits within an active tetramer. A key issue is whether repetition of apparent 180 degrees rotation steps requires rejoining of the DNA strands and resetting of the catalytic machinery, or if multiple rotation steps can take place in the fully cleaved intermediate. We present evidence that a resolvase-catalysed DNA knotting reaction, brought about by apparent 360 degrees rotation, can proceed without rejoining of the DNA strands in the recombinant (180 degrees rotation) configuration. This behaviour is not compatible with a mechanism requiring a fixed arrangement of the catalytic subunits, and strongly suggests that recombination is coupled to disruption of the dimer interface between two subunits bound at each crossover site. We also show that an artificial supercoiled plasmid containing two res sites, with a single mismatched base-pair in one of the crossover sites, is a substrate for "suicidal" reactions in which resolvase remains covalently linked to two half-sites.

Site-specific recombination by Tn3 resolvase, photocrosslinked to its supercoiled DNA substrate.

Site-specific recombination, transposition, and retroviral integration reactions involve the collaborative action of multiple identical protein subunits, making it difficult to determine the catalytic functions and fate of a subunit at any particular DNA binding site of the substrate. To investigate the mechanism of catalysis by the site-specific recombinase Tn3 resolvase, we fixed specific subunits to their binding sites by laser photocrosslinking, using a partially synthetic supercoiled DNA substrate containing photoreactive nucleotides. Crosslinked resolvase subunits were able to participate in a complete recombination reaction, demonstrating that the interaction of the subunit with its binding site persists throughout the reaction, and thus placing limitations on acceptable models for the catalytic mechanism.

Rate and selectively of synapsis of res recombination sites by Tn3 resolvase.

Site-specific recombination catalysed by Tn3 resolvase requires the formation of an intermediate synaptic complex containing two res recombination sites and several resolvase subunits. Synaptic complexes were observed directly by chemical crosslinking of resolvase subunits followed by agarose gel electrophoresis. The highest yield of synaptic complex was from a "standard" substrate, a supercoiled plasmid with res sites in direct repeat, but complexes were also made between sites in inverted repeat, or in nicked or linear molecules, or in separate molecules. The substrate selectivity for synapsis is less stringent than for recombination; thus recombination selectivity is dependent on steps after synapsis. The stability of the synapse after its formation might be a key factor, since unproductive synapses are less stable than productive ones. In a standard substrate, synapsis is fast relative to the rate of recombination. Crosslinking in active reaction mixtures yields synaptic complexes derived from both the substrate and the catenane recombination product. Although catalysis of strand exchange is at binding site I of res, a pair of isolated site 1's do not synapse, whereas a synaptic complex is formed from a plasmid carrying two copies of res binding sites II and III. Our data are consistent with a model in which the formation of the synaptic intermediate is driven, and its structure defined, by the initial interaction of these accessory sites.

Catalytic residues of gamma delta resolvase act in cis.

The resolvase protein of the gamma delta transposon is a site-specific recombinase that acts by a concerted break-and-join mechanism. To analyse the role of individual resolvase subunits in DNA strand cleavage, we have directed the binding of catalytic mutants to specific recombination crossover sites or half-sites. Our results demonstrate that the resolvase subunit bound at the half-site proximal to each scissile phosphodiester bond provides the Ser10 nucleophile and Arg8, Arg68 and Arg71 residues essential for cleavage and covalent attachment to the DNA. Several other residues near the presumptive active site are also shown to act in cis. Double-strand cleavage at one crossover site can proceed independently of cleavage at the other site, although interactions between the resolvase dimers bound at the two crossover sites remain essential. An appropriately oriented heterodimer of active and inactive protomers can in most cases mediate either a 'top' or 'bottom' single-strand cleavage, suggesting that there is no obligatory order of strand cleavages. Top-strand cleavage is associated with the topoisomerase I activity of resolvase, suggesting that a functional asymmetry may be imposed on the crossover site by the structure of the active synapse.

Cooperative binding of Tn3 resolvase monomers to a functionally asymmetric binding site.

BACKGROUND: The inverted repeat is a common feature of protein-binding sites in DNA. The two-fold symmetry of the inverted repeat corresponds to the two-fold symmetry of the protein that binds to it. In most natural inverted-repeat binding sites, however, the DNA sequence does not have perfect two-fold symmetry. Our study of how a site-specific recombinase recognizes an inverted-repeat binding site indicates that such sequence asymmetry can be functionally important. RESULTS: Tn3 resolvase forms two complexes with the 34 base-pair binding site II of its recombination region, res. A resolvase monomer first binds at the left end of the site; a second monomer then binds cooperatively at the right end. In both complexes, the DNA is bent by resolvase. In contrast, the closely related gamma delta resolvase binds to site II mainly as a dimer. Insertion of 5 or 10 base pairs at the centre of the site does not prevent cooperative binding of two Tn3 resolvase subunits. The fully occupied site II has a very asymmetric structure. Reversal of the orientation of site II in res blocks recombination; thus, its asymmetric properties are functionally important. We propose a structure for the two-subunit complex formed with site II, based on our results and by analogy with the co-crystal structure of gamma delta resolvase bound to res site I. CONCLUSIONS: Deviations from perfect inverted-repeat symmetry in a resolvase-binding site lead to ordered binding of subunits, structural asymmetry of resolvase-DNA complexes, and asymmetric function.

The tyrosine-6 hydroxyl of gamma delta resolvase is not required for the DNA cleavage and rejoining reactions.

Site-specific recombinases of the resolvase and DNA invertase family all contain a tyrosine residue close to the N-terminus, and four residues away from a serine that has been implicated in catalysis of DNA strand breakage and reunion. To examine the role of this tyrosine in recombination, we have constructed a mutant of gamma delta resolvase in which the tyrosine (residue 6) is replaced by phenylalanine. Characterization of the Y6F mutant protein in vitro indicated that although it was highly defective in recombination, it could cleave DNA at the cross-over site, form a covalent resolvase-DNA complex and rejoin the cleaved cross-over site (usually restoring the parental site). These data rule out a direct role of the Tyr-6 hydroxyl as the nucleophile in the DNA cleavage reaction and strengthen the conclusion that this nucleophile is the nearby invariant serine residue, Ser-10. We conclude that Tyr-6 is essential for fully co-ordinated strand cleavage and exchange, but is dispensable for individual strand cleavage and religation reactions.

Tn552 transposase purification and in vitro activities.

The Staphylococcus aureus transposon Tn552 encodes a protein (p480) containing the 'D,D(35)E' motif common to retroviral integrases and the transposases of a number of bacterial elements, including phage Mu, the integron-containing element Tn5090, Tn7 and IS3. p480 and a histidine-tagged derivative were overexpressed in Escherichia coli and purified by methods involving denaturation and renaturation. DNase I footprinting and gel binding assays demonstrated that p480 binds to two adjacent, directly repeated 23 bp motifs at each end of Tn552. Although donor strand cleavage by p480 was not detected, in vitro conditions were defined for strand transfer activity with transposon end fragments having pre-cleaved 3' termini. Strand transfer was Mn(2+)-dependent and appeared to join a single left or right end fragment to target DNA. The importance of the terminal dinucleotide CA-3' was demonstrated by mutation. The in vitro activities of p480 are consistent with its proposed function as the Tn552 transposase.

The linkage change of a knotting reaction catalysed by Tn3 resolvase.

Tn3 resolvase catalyses recombination between a pair of identical res sites, directly repeated on a supercoiled plasmid molecule. The normal in vitro product is a two-noded catenane. A plasmid with a single base substitution at one res site is converted to non-recombinant knots by resolvase; the first major product is a four-noded knot. The linkage change, delta Lk, on formation of the four-noded knot is +4. The formation of the observed knots from the mutant substrate, and this value of delta Lk were predicted by and in agreement with a "simple rotation" model for catalysis of strand exchange by resolvase. A number of alternative mechanisms for knotting by resolvase are inconsistent with the observed topological changes.

Stereoselectivity of DNA catenane fusion by resolvase.

Communications between distant sites on DNA often depend on the way in which the sites are connected. For example, site-specific recombination catalysed by Tn3 resolvase is most efficient when the 114-base-pair res recombination sites are directly repeated in the same DNA molecule. In vitro a supercoiled plasmid substrate containing two directly repeated res sites gives a resolution product in which the two recombinant circles are topologically linked as a simple (two-noded) catenane (Fig. 1a). Resolvase is highly selective in forming this product rather than unlinked circles or more complex catenanes. It does not catalyse recombination between sites on separate supercoiled molecules, or between inverted sites in the same supercoiled molecule. Tn3 resolution removes four negative supercoils from the substrate, an energetically favourable change which may drive the reaction: in relaxed or nicked circular substrates, resolution is incomplete and slower. Resolvase can catalyse fusion of the circles of a nicked or relaxed catenane, giving a single unknotted circular product. The fusion is the precise topological reversal of resolution, introducing four negative supercoils into a relaxed catenane substrate, and should therefore not proceed if the catenane is already negatively supercoiled. Here we study recombination between res sites in non-supercoiled DNA circles linked into simple catenanes. We used (+2) and (-2) catenanes, which differ only in the direction in which one circle is threaded through the other (Fig. 2a). Although stereoselectivity is a feature of enzyme catalysis, it is not obvious how resolvase can distinguish between these subtly different catenane diastereomers. A model for the intertwining of the res site DNA in the catalytically active complex predicts that only the (-2) catenane will recombine, giving unknotted and 4-noded knot circular products. We have confirmed this prediction for the Tn3 and Tn21 resolvases.

Catalysis by site-specific recombinases.

Site-specific recombination reactions bring about controlled rearrangements of DNA molecules by cutting the DNA at precise points and rejoining the ends to new partners. The recombinases that catalyse these reactions can be grouped into two families by amino acid sequence homology. We describe our current understanding of how these proteins catalyse recombination, and show how the catalytic mechanisms of the two families differ.

Resolvase-catalysed reactions between res sites differing in the central dinucleotide of subsite I.

The resolvase-catalysed reaction between two res sites in a circular DNA substrate normally gives two circular recombination products linked in a two-noded catenane. Homology between the two res sites at the central overlap dinucleotide of subsite I is important for recombination. Reactions between res sites differing at one position in the central dinucleotide (AC X AT) gave a low yield of recombinants containing mismatched base-pairs, but gave large amounts of a non-recombinant four-noded knot. This result was predicted by a 'simple rotation' model for strand exchange. The mismatch is evidently recognized only after commitment to an initial 180 degrees rotation of the resolvase-linked DNA ends, and it induces a second 180 degrees rotation which restores correct base-pairing at the overlap, giving the four-noded product. Correct base-pairing is not essential for religation, but may be important for release of the products. Characteristic patterns of 4, 6, 8 and 10 node knots, or 4, 8, 12 and 16 node knots were obtained, depending on the reaction conditions and the resolvase. Two pathways for multiple rounds of rotation in 360 degrees steps are inferred. The results support a model for strand exchange by supercoil-directed subunit rotation within a resolvase tetramer.

Determinants of correct res site alignment in site-specific recombination by Tn3 resolvase.

In site-specific recombination reactions catalyzed by Tn3 resolvase, the right and left arms of the res site are always religated to the correct partner. This poses the problem of how resolvase aligns the two sites correctly for the cleavage/religation reaction. We show that the "accessory" binding subsites II and III of res are important for correct alignment of the adjoining crossover subsite (subsite I). Deletion of subsites II and III from one of the two res sites removes a barrier to recombination between incorrectly aligned crossover subsites. Correct alignment does not require any DNA sequence asymmetry in the crossover subsite, DNA supercoiling, or covalent linkage of the two res sites. Our results suggest that correct subsite I alignment is determined by local, resolvase-mediated interactions of subsites II and III of both partners, consistent with a current model of the synapse. Surprisingly, the topological selectivity for intramolecular resolution in a supercoiled substrate does not require subsites II and III in both recombination partners.

Site-specific recombination by Tn3 resolvase.

Site-specific recombination processes in microbes bring about precise DNA rearrangements which have diverse and important biological functions. The sites and recombinase enzymes used for these processes fall into two distinct families. Here we describe how experiments with one family, exemplified by the resolution system of transposon Tn3, have provided insight into the ways in which DNA and protein interact to bring together distant recombination sites and promote strand exchange.

Site-specific recombination by Tn3 resolvase: topological changes in the forward and reverse reactions.

Site-specific recombination catalyzed by Tn3 resolvase proceeds with a linkage change, delta Lk, of +4 in the forward resolution reaction and -4 in the catenane fusion reverse reaction. The reverse reaction occurs only at low superhelical densities and gives unknotted circular products, consistent with plectonemic and not solenoidal wrapping of the two recombination sites. The strand exchange topologies are consistent with a mechanism in which resolvase cleaves all four DNA strands and religates them after a 180 degrees rotation of two duplex partners in a right-handed sense for the "forward" reaction, and in a left-handed sense for the "reverse" action. This could be achieved by a 180 degrees rotation of two resolvase subunits within a tetramer with D2 symmetry; we suggest that a different symmetry applies to phage lamda integrase catalysis.