Overall maturity of object relations as assessed by the McGill Object Relations Scale.

The McGill Object Relations Scale (MORS) is an instrument for assessing levels of drive-based object relations along a continuum of positions representative of psychosexual development. Its theoretical foundations as well as empirical antecedents are presented, and its rating procedure is demonstrated through a case application. The MORS was applied, by five experienced psychiatrists, to 67 adult patients seeking psychoanalytic psychotherapy, in order to assess interrater reliability, internal structure, and construct validity. Results indicate that overall maturity of object relations stems from structural indices of self-object differentiation determined by a particular configuration of many positions, rather than from the thematic aspects included in the individual psychosexual positions.

Dimensions of mentalisation: outlining levels of psychic transformation.

The authors of this paper use the term 'mentalisation' as a supra-ordinate concept that encompasses processes of representation, symbolisation and abstraction. Mentalisation is defined as a preconscious or ego function that transforms basic somatic sensations and motor patterns through a linking activity (Freud's notion of Bindung). This binding proceeds from initial associations of somatic/motoric substrata with mental representations, on to the multiplication and organisation of these representations, thus allowing the emergence of mental contents and structures of higher levels of complexity (symbolism and abstraction). Inspired by the contributions of Marty, Luquet and Bion, the authors propose a conceptual model of formal levels of mental elaboration. Mentalisation is defined as consisting of two theoretically separate and independent dimensions. Each presents levels of a hypothesised and gradually increasing mental elaboration. The first dimension considers different channels of drive-affect expression: somatic and motor activity, imagery and verbalisation. The second specifies five descriptive levels of affect tolerance and abstraction: disruptive impulsion (acting out), modulated impulsion (catharsis), externalisation, appropriation and abstract-reflexive meaning association. A clinical case illustrates how the two dimensions may influence listening and interpreting. Some metapsychological aspects of the process of mentalisation are discussed.

Countertransference as instrument and obstacle: a comprehensive and descriptive framework.

A comprehensive and descriptive approach to counter-transference phenomena is proposed. Three types of mental activity are distinguished: the objective-rational attitude is an adaptive, relatively nondefensive mode of observation; the reactive mental state corresponds to the classical notion of unconscious counter-transference as an obstacle and a defense; by contrast the reflective attitudes involve preconscious and conscious psychical activity. Reflective activity involves four phases: (1) during emergence, an inner reaction appears; (2) immersion, through a regressive exploration, leads to introjective identification; (3) integrative elaboration involves a shift in cathexis, more distance, and an organization of the regressed contents, while (4) an interpretation is forming in mind. Three case examples from the literature serve to illustrate.

The specificity of hermeneutics in psychoanalysis: leaps on the path from construction to recollection.

Psychoanalysis is the search for and revelation, through interpretation and construction, of unknown, unconscious implications. But the question is raised: are the meanings being uncovered or are we providing them? This basic realist-idealist contraposition is at the heart of current discussions about the hermeneutic trend in psychoanalysis. Ricoeur's often misrepresented contribution serves as a basis for understanding Freud's method as forming a 'hermeneutic constellation', evolving within a 'moderate', in contrast to a 'radical-idealist' hermeneutic psychoanalysis. Ahumada's recent charge of 'verbal creationism' and Laplanche's re-framing of interpretation between determinism and hermeneutics are discussed in order to specify the more moderate position taken in this paper. It is argued that although they are correct in pointing to potential excesses, both authors misrepresent the hermeneuticist trend as unnecessarily idealistic. A case example from a session illustrates the discussion.

Voluntary control of autonomic responses: a case for a dialogue between individual and group experimental methodologies.

This paper discusses the general methodological controversy between individual and group research approaches by comparing the main characteristics of these two methods as applied to the specific context of basic research on voluntary heart rate control. A review of the literature published over the past 19 years in this area of study shows an imbalance in the frequency of utilization of these two methods that strongly favors shortterm group designs. Implications of this research tendency are discussed. The relevance and the advantages of applying the individual approach to voluntary autonomic control research are outlined. This area is particularly amenable to the individual approach because the phenomena under study seem to be characterized by, among other things, a smaller intrasubject than intersubject variability. It is suggested that the present imbalanced tendency in the choice of a research method be corrected and that researchers adopt a more flexible attitude in the choice of the best method for studying each specific problem.

Voluntary heart rate deceleration: a critical evaluation.

This experiment was designed as a test of the view that the human heart rate (HR) deceleration response can be brought under voluntary control, when some form of exteroceptive feedback is available. Sixteen female volunteers were randomly assigned to two groups. The first group received instructions to decrease their HR plus a continuous negative (failure) binary feedback, while the second group received only the instructions. Each subject was given four sessions of HR deceleration training. Two identical tests were presented, one before and the other after the series of training sessions. These tests were divided into two parts. In the first part, subjects attempted to decrease their HR while undergoing an ischemic arm pain stress. In the second part, subjects performed a 40-trial HR discrimination task. The results indicate that all subjects decrease HR during both rest and voluntary control periods within each training session, but there are no significant group differences, no improvement in HR deceleration control over the four training sessions, and no difference in performance between rest and voluntary control periods. Similarly HR, blood pressure (BP), and the HR x BP product levels during the ischemic stress condition and the HR discrimination performance do not show group differences. It is suggested that the HR deceleration response may not meet the criteria generally applied to the definition of a voluntary response.

Information and reward in voluntary heart rate control.

Two studies are reported which examined the relative effects of the pressence and absence of monetary incentives and instructions in a heart rate (HR) regulation task. Twelve male undergraduates were offered seven sessions of feedback assisted voluntary HR control training. In Experiment 1 six S s attempted to increase their HR with the aid of a "success," or positive binary visual signal. In Experiment 2 six S s were instructed to decrease their HR and were assisted by a "failure," or negative binary visual signal. In both studies the presence or absence of E's specific instructions to control HR was systematically varied from sessions 4 to 7. S s were paid on only half of the feedback trials of each session. These variables were thus systematically varied in a within-subject design. The main results suggest that (a) the instructions and monetary incentives significantly facilitated HR acceleration while showing no effects on HR deceleration; (b) in the no-instructions, no-incentive condition, HR control was minimal. The general hypothesis that Estes' interpretation of information and reward apply to human voluntary HR control received some support. It would appear that contrary to a traditional view, the exteroceptive feedback per se does not necessarily act as a reinforcer of the behavior, as witnessed for instance in the no-instructions, no-incentive conditions.