Selective and conventional house-spraying of DDT and bendiocarb against Anopheles pseudopunctipennis in southern Mexico.

Indoor feeding behaviors and mortalities of Anopheles pseudopunctipennis females were evaluated following contact with selective (bands covering mosquitoes' preferred resting areas) and full applications of DDT and bendiocarb on indoor sprayable surfaces. The DDT residues provoked strong avoidance behavior. To a lesser degree, mosquitoes were also repelled by bendiocarb-sprayed surfaces. Because of strong irritancy/repellency, unfed mosquitoes were driven outdoors in proportionally higher numbers. The resting time on selectively or fully DDT-sprayed huts was greatly reduced in comparison to bendiocarb-sprayed huts. Although unfed mosquitoes tended to rest on non-DDT-sprayed surfaces in the selectively treated hut, the man-biting rate was similar with both types of treatments. Unfed mosquitoes were repelled less from selectively bendiocarb-treated surfaces. Similar reductions in postfed resting times were observed on all surfaces suggesting that once fed, mosquitoes rested on sprayed surfaces for shorter intervals of time. Engorged mosquitoes had normal resting behavior (pre- and postspray) within the range of preferred resting heights in both DDT- and bendiocarb-sprayed huts, but the proportion of mosquitoes fed in the DDT-treated huts was lower. Selective spraying of walls was as effective as spraying the complete walls with both insecticides, but DDT was more effective in reducing mosquito-human contact. These studies show that by more effectively targeting vector behavior, a cost-effective alternative to traditional control techniques can be achieved.

Behaviour of Anopheles albimanus in relation to pyrethroid-treated bednets.

Responses of the malaria vector Anopheles albimanus to pyrethroid impregnated bednets made of cotton or nylon, compared with untreated nets, were investigated in houses occupied by two people inside and/or outside two bednets, in coastal Chiapas, México. The pyrethroid used was lambdacyhalothrin 30 mg a.i./m2. Bioassay mortality rates of An.albimanus exposed to treated nets for 3 or 15 min, rose from 40-55% to 90-100% for nylon nets 3-19 weeks post-treatment, but were consistently lower for treated cotton nets. An.albimanus females (collected unfed on human bait) were released in houses surrounded by curtains for trapping mosquitoes that exited from the house. Floor sheets were used in and around each experimental house for retrieving any mosquitoes knocked-down and/or killed. During post-treatment assessment for 17 weeks, An.albimanus blood-feeding success rates were 23-24% with untreated nets, 14-18% with treated cotton nets and 8-15% with treated nylon nets, significantly reduced when both human baits were inside the treated bednets, but not when one or more baits were outside the treated bednet(s) within the house. Proportions of mosquitoes leaving houses < 3 h post-release were 53-59% from houses with untreated bednets versus 65-78% with treated bednets. Except in one case (when both humans were outside treated cotton nets), these increased early exit rates were significant, whether or not the human baits were inside the treated bednets indoors. Mortality rates of An.albimanus females exiting overnight (22.00-06.00 hours) averaged 15-39% from houses with treated cotton and 16-46% with treated nylon nets, very significantly greater than the control mean rates of 6-8% mortality with untreated nets. Observations on wild-caught An.albimanus females marked with fluorescent powder and released indoors revealed that few mosquitoes (3-11%) actually contacted the bednets unless both human baits remained under them - when contact rates were 22% on treated nylon, 23% on treated cotton and 42% on untreated nets (P approximately 0.05). The mean resting time was significantly longer on untreated (14.4 min) than on treated nylon (5.8 min) or cotton (9.5 min) bednets, whereas mean resting times on other surfaces indoors were 16.5-19.8 min. Proportions exiting within 2h of release were significantly more from houses with treated houses (33-35%) than with untreated nets (8%). However, mortality rates of mosquitoes that landed on treated nets were very significantly greater (90-100%) than after landing on untreated nets (10%). Thus, despite some excito-repellency, lambdacyhalothrin-impregnated bednets (especially made of nylon) proved to be effective as an alternative to house-spraying against An.albimanus.

Low-volume application by mist-blower compared with conventional compression sprayer treatment of houses with residual pyrethroid to control the malaria vector Anopheles albimanus in Mexico.

Village-scale trials were carried out in southern Mexico to compare the efficacy of indoor-spraying of the pyrethroid insecticide lambda-cyhalothrin applied either as low-volume (LV) aqueous emulsion or as wettable-powder (WP) aqueous suspension for residual control of the principal coastal malaria vector Anopheles albimanus. Three indoor spray rounds were conducted at 3-month intervals using back-pack mist-blowers to apply lambda-cyhalothrin 12.5 mg a.i./m2 by LV, whereas the WP was applied by conventional compression sprayer at a mean rate of 26.5 mg a.i./m2. Both treatments caused mosquito mortality indoors and outdoors (collected inside house curtains) as a result of contact with treated surfaces before and after feeding, but had no significant impact on overall population density of An. albimanus resting indoors or assessed by human bait collections. Contact bioassays showed that WP and LV treatments with lambda-cyhalothrin were effective for 12-20 weeks (> 75% mortality) without causing excito-repellency. Compared to the WP treatment (8 houses/man/day), LV treatment (25 houses/man/day) was more than 3 times quicker per house, potentially saving 68% of labour costs. This is offset, however, by the much lower unit price of a compression sprayer (e.g. Hudson 'X-pert' at US$120) than a mist-blower (e.g. 'Super Jolly' at US$350), and higher running costs for LV applications. It was calculated, therefore, that LV becomes more economical than WP after 18.8 treatments/100 houses/10 men at equivalent rates of application, or after 7.6 spray rounds with half-rate LV applications.

Control of Anopheles albimanus mosquitos in southern Mexico by spraying their preferred indoor resting sites.

The traditional indoor spraying technique to control Anopheles albimanus mosquitos was compared with a selective method that targets their preferred resting sites in coastal villages of southern Mexico. We also determined whether mosquitos changed their preferred resting sites following insecticide applications. In the selective spraying approach, two 1-m wide horizontal swaths of bendiocarb insecticide were applied 0.75-1.75 m from the base of the walls and at 1-m upwards from the base of the inner roof at a target dose of 0.4 g/m2. A 2-year follow-up (1988-90), which included four insecticide treatments, showed that the selective spraying was as effective as full spraying for controlling A. albimanus. Also the mosquitos preferred resting sites that were not modified by the insecticide applications. Finally, the use of this techniques required 46% less time and cost 67% less than conventional spraying.

Intradomicillary pre- and postfeeding behavior of Anopheles pseudopunctipennis of southern Mexico: implications for malaria control.

The intradomicillary pre- and postfeed resting behavior of Anopheles pseudopunctipennis was studied in an experimental house in southern Mexico. During resting periods (both pre-/postfeed) mosquitos had greater contact (landings) with the inner roof than with the walls and other surfaces. A comparison of mean landing frequency and overall resting time (pre-/postfeed) showed that a greater periodic and prolonged contact occurred prefeed, probably as a result of disturbed activity associated with host movements. Pre-/postfeed resting patterns on walls were limited to a 0.6-0.5-m-wide band, nearly 1 m from the floor, and to a narrower band on the roof, 0.3-0.2 m wide, approximately 2.3 m from the floor, respectively. We calculated that with a band width of 0.8 m on the walls and another band 0.8 m wide on the roof, 87.2% of the mosquitoes had at least one contact with either the wall, the roof, or with both surfaces, along with an overall mean resting time (pre-/postfeed) of 8.1 min/landing. These findings suggest that a high potential for control can be achieved by spraying preferred wall and roof resting sites in this region where the intradomicillary application of residual insecticide is the primary malaria control measure.

Peri-/intradomicillary behavior in relation to host-seeking of Anopheles pseudopunctipennis in southern Mexico.

Peri-/intradomicillary resting and host-seeking behavior of Anopheles pseudopunctipennis was studied in an experimental house (surrounded by a curtain-net) that had not been sprayed with insecticide. Peak mosquito densities were recorded resting on vegetation 1 h earlier (1900-2000 h) than on the curtain-net, suggesting that a proportion of females prefer resting on adjacent vegetation prior to moving indoors. Between 2000 and 2100 h there was a marked decrease in numbers of mosquitoes resting on the exterior of the curtain-net. In separate experiments without the net, a single peak in numbers of mosquitoes resting on interior surfaces and/or biting human bait occurred between 2000 and 2100 h. Unfed mosquitoes had higher numbers of contacts with wall surfaces than with the roof. Moreover, a higher proportion of mosquitoes collected on human bait had > or = 1 dilatation(s), and higher parity rates than those resting on walls. Higher proportions of parous mosquitoes more frequently fed from 1800 to 2100 h, whereas higher proportions of nulliparous mosquitoes fed during morning hours. Nearly 25% of all mosquitoes exited 1 h following their release inside the house, whereas nearly 7% remained indoors for > 9 h. Overall results demonstrated that the behavior of An. pseudopunctipennis females depends on outdoor/indoor stimuli, being multivariable in nature. This includes contacts with a variety of biological (i.e., vegetation, human) and inert surfaces, which in part appears to be controlled by age structure.

[The focal control of malaria. Focal treatment using chemoprophylaxis and home insecticide spraying for the control of malaria in southern Mexico]. / Control focal del paludismo. Tratamiento focal usando quimioprofilaxis y rociado intradomiciliar con insecticida para el control del paludismo en el sur de México.

The efficacy of a focal control strategy for malaria was evaluated against a conventional scheme carried out in two groups of villages in the Soconusco, southern Chiapas, Mexico. Focal control consisted on the prophylactic administration of antimalarial drugs to people who had experienced malaria episodes two years previous to the study. Homes of these malaria patients were also sprayed indoors with DDT. The traditional strategy consisted on the treatment of all patients with antimalarial drugs as well as indoor spraying with DDT of all houses in the villages. Results from the focal control demonstrated similar efficacy as compared to conventional. However, in terms of cost, focal control was four fold more economical. Focal control had an additional advantage of incorporating community participation within the control operations.

Plasmodium vivax sporozoite rates from Anopheles albimanus in southern Chiapas, Mexico.

Anopheles albimanus mosquitoes were collected from August 1984 to November 1987 on intra- and peridomicile human bait in Rancheria El Gancho, Chiapas, Mexico. The mosquitoes were desiccated and stored in silicon chambers from 3 mo to 3 yr post-collection prior to being assayed using a direct enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect Plasmodium vivax predominant-type sporozoite protein. Peridomicile-collected mosquitoes had a 10-fold higher sporozoite rate than those collected indoors, but only the latter correlate significantly with the seasonal human parasite index. Mosquito sporozoite burden was also significantly higher in the peridomicile-collected population.

Intradomiciliary behavior of Anopheles albimanus on the coastal plain of southern Mexico: implications for malaria control.

The postfeeding indoor resting behavior of Anopheles albimanus in experimental houses in southern México was investigated by using a mark-recapture procedure. The majority of mosquitoes rested inside houses after taking a blood meal indoors. There was a higher landing frequency on interior surfaces other than walls and roofs; however, mosquitoes rested for longer periods on these 2 surfaces. Successive landings on walls after short flights showed that mosquitoes gradually increased their mean landing height from 1.0 to 1.4 m. Similarly, mosquitoes resting at the base of inner roofs had a successive landing height range of about 0.5 m. Based on these observations and the potential for reduction of nearly 50% in the quantity of insecticide used and the time needed to apply it, village-scale studies involving the selective spraying of a 1-m-wide swath of insecticide on walls and on roofs are recommended in this area.

Indoor low-volume insecticide spray for the control of Anopheles albimanus in southern Mexico. Village-scale trials of bendiocarb, deltamethrin and cyfluthrin.

A comparative insecticide village-scale trial was carried out to determine the efficacy of low-volume (LV) indoor spray of bendiocarb, deltamethrin and cyfluthrin for the control of Anopheles albimanus in a coastal plain of southern Mexico. Low-volume spray was conducted with knapsack mist-blowers, giving an average discharge rate of 215 ml/min, which deposited droplets of 50-100 microns. Using this technique, 25 houses were treated/sprayman/day as compared with 8 houses/sprayman/day using conventional hand compression pumps. Indicators of LV mortality showed a residual activity of 10 wk as compared with 13 wk of activity for wettable powder (WP) (bendiocarb). When comparing expenditures, LV spray costs were 43% less when using bendiocarb, 83% less with deltamethrin and 74% less with cyfluthrin with respect to the conventional WP spray of the same insecticides. Low-volume spray time was reduced by one-third, with respect to WP. Malaria incidence was reduced by 53 and 56%, respectively, in the bendiocarb LV and deltamethrin LV treated villages as compared with the untreated village.

Anopheles albimanus (Diptera: Culicidae) host selection patterns in three ecological areas of the coastal plains of Chiapas, southern Mexico.

The host-feeding patterns of Anopheles albimanus Wiedemann were described and the effect of host availability on these patterns was assessed in three different ecological areas of coastal Chiapas, Mexico. Resting mosquitoes were collected indoors and outdoors during rainy seasons. A 20% sample of blood-fed mosquitoes was tested to determine the source of the blood meal using an ELISA. The unweighted human blood index (HBI) of An. albimanus in the three areas ranged from 0.11 to 0.21. This mosquito species fed more frequently on bovines than on any other host, but the forage ratio indicated that there was also a high preference for equines. Some females tended to rest or complete their gonotrophic cycle indoors after feeding on animals, but females also fed on man and rested outdoors. Host availability and ecological conditions appeared to be responsible for differences observed in the HBI among areas.

Tests for the existence of genetic determination or conditioning in host selection by Anopheles albimanus (Diptera: Culicidae).

The existence of sympatric populations within Anopheles albimanus Wiedemann with specific host preferences and the question of whether host selection has a genetic basis or is a learned characteristic were investigated. Progeny of wild females collected from corrals or human bait were reared in an insectary. F1 females were fed on a cow or on a human host, allowed to oviposit, and then were released in an experimental hut divided into three compartments. The side rooms occupied by two human or one calf baits were connected by a "funnel-like" cone with the central room in which mosquitoes were released. Females were released at 2000 hours and recaptured the next morning at 0600 hours. A fixed proportion of mosquitoes selected either host (approximately 65% cow and 35% human), irrespective of their parental origin or source of the first blood meal. The data indicate that the existence of cryptic populations with anthropophilic habits is unlikely and that a "learned" host selection also may be ruled out.

Gonotrophic cycle and survivorship of Anopheles albimanus (Diptera: Culicidae) in southern Mexico.

The length of the gonotrophic cycle of Anopheles albimanus was estimated by 12 mark-release-recapture studies conducted in corrals in southern Mexico from 1987 to 1990. The initial set of three mark-release studies indicated that the gonotrophic cycle takes at least 4 d based on the day when gravid mosquitoes were first recaptured. However, in later experiments, mosquitoes recaptured seeking hosts at 48 h after release were in Sella's and Christophers' stages I and II, but parity rates had nearly doubled, indicating that eggs may have developed in less than 48 h and that mosquitoes returned to refeed immediately following oviposition. Two gonotrophic cycles probably exist, one of 48 h dominated by parous mosquitoes and one of 4 d comprised of nulliparous, pregravid mosquitoes. Daily survivorship was estimated by regression from the decrease in the daily recapture rate (0.46-0.68) was less than that estimated by the parity rates (0.67-0.69), with no important differences found between wet and dry seasons. Estimates of the probability of a mosquito living long enough to transmit malaria were 2% (range, 1.8-2.5%).

[Intra-domiciliary low volume spraying of malathion and deltamethrin for controlling Anopheles sp]. / Aplicación intradomiciliar de malatión y deltametrina en bajo volumen para el control de Anopheles sp.

The effectiveness of low volume (LV) house-spraying of deltamethrin 0.027 per cent and malathion 20 per cent in the control of Anopheles sp was evaluated in two villages of Tabasco, México during the last semester of 1987. Two spray rounds were carried out at three-month intervals, using Fontan R-12 back-pack-space sprayers. Residual effect and cost-benefit were evaluated and compared to the standard DDT spraying technique using the Hudson X-pert sprayer. The entomological evaluation focused on mortality rates and density levels observed from intra and peridomicilliary man biting collections, indoor mosquito resting densities, curtain trap and the standard WHO wall bioassay. It was determined that when using the LV method these insecticides were highly effective. Malathion showed a residual effect of eight weeks whereas deltamethrin was found to have a residual activity of up to 12 weeks. Deltamethrin was more effective in reducing intra and peridomiciliary biting rates, and indoor resting mosquitoes. The cost-benefit ratio of deltamethrin and malathion LV house-spraying was 2.56 and 0.89, respectively, as compared to the standard DDT house-spraying. Considering its effectiveness in anopheline control and its cost-benefit, in addition to being a functional technique, intradomicile LV insecticide spraying should be considered as a practical alternative in malaria control programs.

Age structure and abundance levels in the entomological evaluation of an insecticide used in the control of Anopheles albimanus in southern Mexico.

Applications of bendiocarb produced a high insecticidal residual effect lasting up to 3 months on the most common indoor house surfaces. No significant decreases in mosquito man-biting rate levels were observed between treated and untreated villages. It was shown that almost equal proportions of intra- and peridomicillary mosquitoes came into contact with the insecticide, indicating that mosquitoes commonly enter houses, rest on treated surfaces and return to bite both indoors and outdoors. Although the insecticide was found to have a significant effect on the percentage parity (interpreted as abundance of older individuals) of intra- and peridomicillary Anopheles albimanus mosquitoes, parity recovered and continued a normal cyclic pattern that appeared to be dependent on relative abundance. The proximity of a treated village to an untreated village (1.2 km) can affect the age structure of mosquito populations through shared common resting and breeding sites.

Comparative use of bendiocarb and DDT to control Anopheles pseudopunctipennis in a malarious area of Mexico.

The state of Sinaloa has one of the highest and most persistent malaria transmission levels in Mexico. Due to this situation, with resistance of the vector Anopheles pseudopunctipennis Theobald to DDT, the carbamate insecticide bendiocarb was evaluated as an alternative to DDT for residual house-spraying in village-scale trials during 1985-87. Application rates of the active ingredient per square metre of sprayable surface (ai/m2) were 0.4 g bendiocarb 80% wettable powder (80WP) and 2 g DDT 75% WP. Both insecticides failed to control mosquito populations. Human-bait mosquito densities were not altered as a result of insecticide spraying and human-bait collected mosquito mortality rates were low, suggesting little pre-biting insecticide contact due to avoidance or insufficient resting time indoors. Lower densities of indoor-resting mosquitoes were observed with DDT as opposed to bendiocarb treated houses. Anopheline mortality was higher (98-100%) when exposed for 1 h to 1% bendiocarb in standard WHO susceptibility tests and wall bioassays. Mortality-rates of 15-48% due to 1 h exposure to 4% DDT indicated that this insecticide may continue to be partially effective. House curtain and mark-recapture mosquito studies indicated that DDT produced higher excito-repellency than bendiocarb, as reflected by more mosquito landings but lower feeding rates, shorter resting period and earlier exit time from DDT sprayed houses. In the absence of insecticide, more than 50% of blood-fed An.pseudopunctipennis females exited from houses within 2-4 h of release, showing exophilic behaviour. The outdoor/indoor density ratio indicated that the majority were exophagic. These behavioural characteristics limit the usefulness of any residual insecticide against An.pseudopunctipennis.

Effect of indoor residual spraying of DDT and bendiocarb on the feeding patterns of Anopheles pseudopunctipennis in Mexico.

Intense and persistent use of DDT for malaria control has increased resistance and induced exophilic behavior of Anopheles pseudopunctipennis. An evaluation of bendiocarb and DDT to control this species in Sinaloa, Mexico, showed that, in spite of DDT-resistance, both insecticides produced similar effects. Feeding patterns were analyzed to explain these results. Resting mosquitoes were collected over the dry and wet seasons. Anophelines were tested in an ELISA to determine the source of the meals. The human blood index (HBI) ranged from 3.3 to 6.8% in DDT- and from 12.7 to 26.9% in bendiocarb-sprayed houses. Irritability and repellency in DDT-sprayed houses could explain the reduced HBI. In contrast, bendiocarb produced higher mortality. These effects could have affected different components of the vectorial capacity and similarly reduced malaria.

Small scale field trials of Bacillus sphaericus (strain 2362) against anopheline and culicine mosquito larvae in southern Mexico.

Experimental breeding sites simulating natural conditions were used to evaluate the efficacy of 2 formulations of Bacillus sphaericus (strain 2362) against Anopheles albimanus and culicine (mostly Culex coronator and Cx. quinquefasciatus) mosquito larvae of southern Mexico. Three doses of each formulation were used in a first field trial: 2, 3 and 4 g/m2 (granular) or 2, 3 and 4 ml/m2 (liquid); and in a second field trial: 0.125, 0.24 and 0.5 g/m2 (granular) or 0.125, 0.25 and 0.5 ml/m2 (liquid). The optimum concentrations of each formulation for effective control of larval populations over periods of 3-4 months were 0.125 ml/m2 of liquid product for Culex spp. and 2 g/m2 of granular product for An. albimanus (ca. 70% mean reduction).

Laboratory oviposition, fecundity and egg hatching ability of colonized Anopheles albimanus from southwestern Mexico.

Fecundity, oviposition patterns and egg hatching characteristics were studied in two colonies of Anopheles albimanus isolated from the Pacific coast of southern Mexico. Fecundity was inversely proportional to the cage space available to the female and was influenced by the bloodmeal source, feeding method and previous feeding history. The length of the gonotrophic cycle decreased with succeeding experience from a mean 6.6 in the first to 2.6 days for the fifth cycle. Oviposition timing was also dependent on availability of oviposition substrate. Hatching success of eggs increased significantly when the oviposition site was witheld until 48 hr post-bloodmeal.