Mental health and help-seeking among college students during the COVID-19 pandemic: Roles of campus mental health climate and institutional support.

Objective: This study aimed to examine college students' perceived mental health and help-seeking behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as to determine the roles of campus mental health climate and institutional support on students' help-seeking behaviors and well-being. Participants: The sample included 123 students from a Northeastern United States University. Methods: Using a web-based survey and convenience sampling, data were collected in late 2021. Results: Most participants retrospectively reported a perceived decline in their mental health during the pandemic. Sixty-five percent of the participants reported that they did not receive professional help at a time when they needed it. Both campus mental health climate and institutional support were negatively related to anxiety symptoms. Greater institutional support predicted less social isolation. Conclusions: Our findings highlight the importance of campus climate and support on students' well-being during the pandemic and the need for increasing students' access to mental health care.

COVID-19 pandemic-related stressors and posttraumatic stress: The main, moderating, indirect, and mediating effects of social support.

The COVID-19 pandemic has created a variety of stressors, some of which have been linked to intense stress reactions, such as posttraumatic stress (PTS)-like symptoms. However, we have limited knowledge on cumulative effects of pandemic-related stressors on PTS or on variables that may mitigate the effects of these stressors. We aimed to address some of these knowledge gaps by testing three models to examine the interrelationships among pandemic-related stressors, perceived social support, coping flexibility, and pandemic-related PTS. The sample of this cross-sectional correlational study is comprised of 2291 adults from the United States who completed an online survey between 22 May 2020 and 15 July 2020. Results indicated that greater exposure to secondary stressors, but not COVID-19-related stressors, was associated with increased PTS. After controlling for COVID-19-related and secondary stressors, social support had negative direct and indirect (via coping flexibility) effects on PTS. In addition, social support mediated the effects of COVID-19-related and secondary stressors on PTS. Our findings highlight the complexity of the role of social support in relation to pandemic-related stressors and PTS, and suggest that early interventions that target social support and coping flexibility may help reduce pandemic-related PTS.

Self-criticism, self-compassion, and perceived health: moderating effect of ethnicity.

A caring and compassionate attitude toward the self (i.e., self-compassion) has been linked to various mental and physical health benefits. The Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) is widely used in psychology literature in order to assess global self-compassion. However, recent evidence suggests that the single factor model comprising positive and negative items of the SCS in fact measures two distinct constructs (i.e., self-criticism/self-coldness and self-compassion) with different psychological correlates. Given these recent findings, in addition to other research that highlights cultural differences in self-conceptualizations and self-evaluations, the present study examined potential ethnic differences in the relationships between self-criticism, self-compassion, and perceived health. Participants included 728 college students (141 Asian American, 449 European American, and 138 Hispanic/Latinx individuals) attending a university in the northeast United States. Results indicated that the relationship between self-criticism and self-compassion was significantly different across ethnicity. In addition, the relationships between these two constructs (i.e., self-criticism and self-compassion) and perceived health were moderated by ethnicity. Our findings suggest that focusing on global self-compassion scores (i.e., total SCS scores) may miss some of the important cultural or ethnic differences in the relationships between self-criticism, self-compassion, and perceived health.

COVID-19 and traumatic stress: The role of perceived vulnerability, COVID-19-related worries, and social isolation.

The purpose of the present study was to propose and test two models to understand the relationship between perceived vulnerability to COVID-19 (PVC) and COVID-19-related traumatic stress (TS), as well as the variables that may mediate and moderate this relationship among individuals who have not yet been infected with COVID-19. Using an online survey, data were collected between late March and early April 2020. Participants were recruited through Amazon Mechanical Turk and included 747 adults living in the United States. Supporting our hypotheses, results indicated that both COVID-19-related worries and social isolation were significant mediators of the relationship between PVC and TS (Model 1). In addition, the results of a moderated mediation analysis indicated that the indirect effect of PVC on TS through COVID-19-related worries was stronger for participants who reported greater social isolation (Model 2). Although future research is needed, these findings suggest that both social isolation and disease-related worries may be important variables that can be targeted in interventions to reduce pandemic-related TS.

Do dialectical self-beliefs moderate the indirect effect of betrayal traumas on posttraumatic stress through self-compassion?

BACKGROUND: Traumatic events experienced in childhood, particularly those that are perpetrated by someone whom the child trusts or depends upon (i.e., high betrayal traumas [HBTs], such as abuse by a parent) can lead to long-term negative consequences, including a tendency to see oneself in a negative light, low self-compassion, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Although negative psychological consequences of HBTs are well-documented in the literature, little is known surrounding the protective factors that may reduce the effects of HBTs on individuals' functioning. The present study focused on one potential protective factor, dialectical self-beliefs, that may moderate the negative effects of HBTs experienced in childhood on self-compassion, and hence reduce posttraumatic stress (PTS). OBJECTIVE: The present study is aimed at determining whether dialectical self-beliefs moderate the indirect effect of HBTs on PTS via self-compassion. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Data of the present study were collected from 747 college students attending a university in the Northeast region of the United States. METHOD: Using a correlational study design, the data of this study were collected from college students through an online survey. RESULTS: The results of a moderated mediation analysis indicated that the hypothesized model explained 25% of the variance in PTS. After controlling for low betrayal traumas, the indirect effect of HBTs on PTS through self-compassion was moderated by dialectical self-beliefs. These findings provide support for our hypotheses and suggest that having a dialectical self-view may enhance the adjustment of individuals with a history of HBTs by reducing the negative effect of HBTs on self-compassion.

Avoidance coping and academic locus of control as mediators of the relationship between posttraumatic stress and academic achievement among first-year college students.

Background and Objectives: Posttraumatic stress (PTS) has been found to be associated with poor academic performance among college students. However, our understanding of the mechanisms underlying this relationship is limited to the results of a few recent studies. The present study is aimed at expanding the literature in this area by examining whether avoidance coping and external academic locus of control (LOC) mediate the relationship between PTS and academic achievement among first-year college students. Design: A correlational study design was used. Students completed a quantitative survey in their first semester of college. After they completed their first academic year, we obtained their grade point averages (GPAs) through the university. Method: Participants included 280 first-year college students with a history of potentially traumatic events. Data obtained from these participants were analyzed using path analysis. Results: Two indirect paths from PTS to first-year GPA were significant, suggesting that external academic LOC mediated the effects of both PTS and avoidance coping on first-year GPA. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that the interventions that target external academic LOC may help reduce the detrimental effects of PTS on academic achievement among trauma-exposed college students.

Posttraumatic Stress, Coping Flexibility, and Risky Drinking Among Trauma-Exposed Male and Female College Students: The Mediating Effect of Delay of Gratification.

BACKGROUND: The co-occurence of posttraumatic stress (PTS) and risky drinking has been demonstrated in diverse populations, including college students. However, the mechanisms underlying this co-occurrence, as well as the protective factors that may reduce risky drinking among trauma-exposed college students have yet to be fully understood in the literature. OBJECTIVES: The present study builds upon self-regulation theories and previous empirical work to determine whether the effects of PTS and coping flexibility on risky drinking were mediated by delay of gratification among trauma-exposed college students. In addition, the potential moderating effect of gender on these relationships was examined. METHODS: Participants included 624 trauma-exposed college students (68.4% female) attending a public university in the southeast region of the United States. Data were collected through an online survey. The hypothesized model was examined using a multigroup structural equation modeling approach. RESULTS: As hypothesized, PTS had a significant, positive indirect effect on risky drinking through delay of gratification; however, the effect of PTS on delay of gratification was stronger for males than for females. Results also indicated that the indirect effect of coping flexibility on risky drinking through delay of gratification was significant and negative for males and females. Conclusions/Importance: The findings of this study suggest that delay of gratification might be an important mechanism underlying the co-occurrence of PTS and risky drinking. In addition, our results highlight the potential benefits of coping flexibility for college students coping with PTS.

Depressive Symptomatology and College Persistence among African American College Students.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between depressive symptomatology and college outcomes among African American students, as well as to determine whether these relationships were moderated by gender and type of university. Participants included 569 African American first-year students attending two public universities in the Southeast United States: a historically Black college/university (HBCU) and a predominantly White institution (PWI). Using a longitudinal study design, data were collected at three time points. Results indicated that, after adjusting for the effects of the control variables (gender, type of institution, high school GPA, participation in on-campus activities, institutional and goal commitments), depressive symptomatology present in the first semester of college was associated with increased likelihood of dropping out of college before the end of the second year of college. The relationship between these two variables was mediated by first-year cumulative GPA. Results also indicated that the hypothesized relationships did not vary as a function of gender and the university type.

Posttraumatic stress, effort regulation, and academic outcomes among college students: A longitudinal study.

Entering college with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology has been linked to poor academic performance and increased risk for dropping out of college; however, little is known regarding the mechanisms by which PTSD symptoms have deleterious effects on college outcomes. Drawing from a self-regulated learning (SRL) perspective, which suggests that students' learning behaviors and outcomes can be influenced by contextual and developmental factors, we hypothesized that students who enter college with high PTSD symptomatology may experience difficulties in effort regulation, which in turn, may have deleterious effects on their academic performance and college persistence. These hypothesized relationships, as well as the potential gender differences in these relationships were examined using a longitudinal study design and a multigroup structural equation modeling approach. Of the 928 1st-year students who participated in the study, 484 (52.2%) students who reported lifetime exposure to traumatic events constituted the final sample of the study. The prevalence of PTSD among the trauma-exposed participants was 12.4%. After controlling for participation in on-campus activities and American College Testing (ACT) assessment scores, the relationship between PTSD symptomatology in the 1st semester of college and 2nd-year enrollment was mediated by effort regulation and 1st-year cumulative grade-point average (GPA). Specifically, participants who started college with higher levels of PTSD symptomatology also reported lower levels of effort regulation, which in turn, had a significant indirect effect on 2nd-year enrollment through 1st-year GPA. Results also indicated that the paths in the hypothesized model were not significantly different for men and women. (PsycINFO Database Record

Posttraumatic stress predicting depression and social support among college students: Moderating effects of race and gender.

More than half of the students entering college report a history of potentially traumatic events; however, little is known about the relationship of trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology to college students' mental health and access to social support or whether these relationships may show variations as a function of race and gender. The purpose of this study was to explore whether the relationships between PTSD symptoms and both depression and social support were moderated by gender and race. Data were collected from 631 African American (AA) and 299 European American (EA) freshmen students attending 2 universities in the Southeast. The majority of the students (74.3% of the AA and 68.2% of the EA sample) reported lifetime exposure to at least 1 traumatic event. PTSD symptomatology was significantly and positively associated with depression symptoms for all groups (i.e., AA and EA males and females); however, the relationship between these 2 variables was strongest for EA men. Similarly, the relationship between PTSD symptoms on the avoidance cluster and social support was stronger for EA males than other groups; avoidance symptoms did not significantly predict social support for AA men.

Accepting death as part of life: meaning in life as a means for dealing with loss among bereaved individuals.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the 3 dimensions of death acceptance (i.e., neutral, approach, and escape) and grief symptomatology, as well as whether the relationship between neutral acceptance and grief symptoms was mediated by meaning in life. Data were collected from 160 bereaved individuals. Only neutral acceptance was significantly associated with grief symptomatology; the relationship between the 2 variables was mediated by meaning in life. Participants who perceived death as a natural part of life reported having a greater sense of meaning in their lives, which, in turn, predicted lower grief symptomatology.

Authenticity, life satisfaction, and distress: a longitudinal analysis.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the reciprocal relationships between authenticity and measures of life satisfaction and distress using a 2-wave panel study design. Data were collected from 232 college students attending 2 public universities. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. The results of the cross-lagged panel analysis indicated that after controlling for temporal stability, initial authenticity (Time 1) predicted later distress and life satisfaction (Time 2). Specifically, higher levels of authenticity at Time 1 were associated with increased life satisfaction and decreased distress at Time 2. Neither distress nor life satisfaction at Time 1 significantly predicted authenticity at Time 2. However, the relationship between Time 1 distress and Time 2 authenticity was not significantly different from the relationship between Time 1 authenticity and Time 2 distress. Results are discussed in light of humanistic-existential theories and the empirical research on well-being.

Academic achievement and college persistence of African American students with trauma exposure.

This study examined the relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology and college persistence in African American 1st-year students from 2 universities. Of the 569 participants, 423 (74%) reported lifetime exposure to traumatic events; 20.6% of these students met the criteria for PTSD. For trauma-exposed females, after controlling for academic and nonacademic factors, higher levels of PTSD symptomatology in the 1st semester of college were associated with increased likelihood of leaving college prior to the end of the 2nd year of college; the relationship between the 2 variables was partially mediated by 1st-year grade point average (GPA). PTSD symptomatology was not significantly associated with academic achievement or persistence for males. For trauma-exposed females, in addition to PTSD symptomatology, being a student at a predominantly White institution and entering college with low high school GPA were identified as risk factors for low academic achievement and college dropout; on the other hand, involvement in on-campus activities and higher levels of perceived academic integration in the 1st semester were associated with higher 1st-year GPA, which, in turn, was related to increased likelihood of remaining in college. Clinical implications and strategies to support students with trauma exposure and PTSD are discussed.

The Turkish version of the Meaning In Life Questionnaire: assessing the measurement invariance across Turkish and American adult samples.

The purpose of this study was to adapt the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ) developed by Steger, Frazier, Oishi, and Kaler (2006) into Turkish and examine the measurement and structural invariance of this scale across Turkish (N = 815) and U.S. (N = 207) samples. Our findings indicated that the hypothesized 2-factor model of the MLQ fit the data well for both Turkish and U.S. samples. Results also provided support for the full metric invariance, partial scalar invariance, and partial invariance of residual variances of the MLQ across the 2 samples (i.e., Turkish and U.S.). Supporting the structural invariance, we found that factor variances and covariances were equivalent across the 2 groups. Internal consistency reliability analyses revealed a Cronbach's alpha value of .88 for the MLQ Presence scale and .90 for the Search scale. Our findings also provided preliminary support for the convergent validity of the Turkish version of the MLQ (MLQ-TR). Contrary to findings in other collectivist cultures, the relationship between Search and Presence was negative in Turkish culture. These results support the psychometric properties of the MLQ-TR and its partial equivalence to the original U.S. version.

Can positive thinking help? Positive automatic thoughts as moderators of the stress-meaning relationship.

The purpose of this study was to test whether positive automatic cognitions moderated the relationship between event stressfulness and meaning in life. Measures of these constructs were administered to 232 students and community-dwelling adults. Supporting hypotheses and the literature, positive automatic cognitions moderated the relationship between event stressfulness and meaning in life. For persons with high levels of positive thinking, greater event stressfulness was associated with higher meaning in life. For persons with low levels of positive thinking, greater event stressfulness was associated with lower meaning in life. These results were obtained when controlling for positive affect, as well as the positive affect × event stressfulness interaction. The positive cognitions × event stressfulness interaction accounted for 2.9% of variance, and the overall model accounted for 47% of the variance in meaning in life.

Finding meaning in loss: the mediating role of social support between personality and two construals of meaning.

Dimensions of personality may shape an individual's response to loss both directly and indirectly through its effects on other variables such as an individual's ability to seek social support. The mediating effect of social support on the relationship between personality (i.e., extraversion and neuroticism) and 2 construals of meaning (i.e., sense-making and benefit-finding) among 325 bereaved individuals was explored using path analysis. Supporting our hypotheses, social support mediated the relationship between personality and construals of meaning. Neuroticism was negatively and indirectly associated with both sense-making and benefit-finding through social support. Extraversion had a significant positive relationship to social support, which, in turn, mediated the impact of extraversion on both sense-making and benefit finding. The model explained 35% of the variance in social support, 19% of the variance in sense-making, and 25% of the variance in benefit-finding. Implications are discussed in light of existing theories of bereavement and loss.

Psychological well-being among fathers of children with and without disabilities: the role of family cohesion, adaptability, and paternal self-efficacy.

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of family cohesion, adaptability, and paternal self-efficacy in psychological well-being of fathers of children with and without disabilities and whether the effects of these variables on psychological well-being were the same for both groups of fathers. In addition, the potential differences in perceived well-being between the two groups of fathers were examined. Sixty-three fathers of children with disabilities and 217 fathers of typically developing children participated in this study. Fathers of children with disabilities scored significantly higher on the self-acceptance dimension of psychological well-being compared with fathers of children without disabilities. After controlling for the demographic factors, family cohesion and paternal self-efficacy significantly and positively predicted well-being of fathers; the effects of these variables on well-being were the same for both groups of fathers.