In situ dissolved polypropylene prediction by Raman and ATR-IR spectroscopy for its recycling.

Monitoring the dissolution of polyolefins using online spectroscopy analysis is addressed in this work, with the aim of optimizing plastic recycling processes. Two in situ spectroscopic methods are used to predict the dissolved polymer content: Raman spectroscopy and attenuated total reflectance infrared spectroscopy. Commercially available polypropylenes are considered. Different solvents are selected based on their affinity with polypropylene. Partial least squares regression is employed to identify models predicting the polymer concentration for each solvent from the online spectra. Raman spectroscopy was found to give a better prediction. It was therefore used to study different parameters influencing the dissolution process, such as solvent type, temperature and polymer form.

Molecular-Scale Understanding of the Embrittlement in Polyethylene Ocean Debris.

The fate of plastic waste is a pressing issue since it forms a visible and long-lived reminder of the environmental impact of consumer habits. In this study, we examine the structural changes in the lamellar arrangements of semicrystalline polyethylene (PE) packaging waste with the aim of understanding the physical mechanisms of embrittlement in PE exposed to the marine environment. PE microplastics and macroplastics from identifiable PE packaging were collected in the Atlantic Ocean and compared to new PE boxes. Several experimental techniques interrogate the effects of environmental exposure on their bulk and surface properties. Size exclusion chromatography determines the molecular weight distribution of the PE polymer chains and differential scanning calorimetry gives the crystallinity. Small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering examines the packing of PE chains into semicrystalline lamellae. Longitudinal acoustic mode Raman spectroscopy provides a complementary measurement of the length of PE polymer chains extending through the crystalline lamellar domains. While there is a high degree of uncertainty in the time scale for the changes, the overall picture at the molecular scale is that although PE becomes more crystalline with environmental exposure, the lamellar order present in new packing boxes is disrupted by the weathering process. This process has important implications for embrittlement and subsequent degradation.

Ethylene Polymerization-Induced Self-Assembly (PISA) of Poly(ethylene oxide)-block-polyethylene Copolymers via RAFT.

Poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) with dithiocarbamate chain ends (PEO-SC(=S)-N(CH3 )Ph and PEO-SC(=S)-NPh2 , named PEO-1 and PEO-2, respectively) were used as macromolecular chain-transfer agents (macro-CTAs) to mediate the reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization of ethylene in dimethyl carbonate (DMC) under relatively mild conditions (80 °C, 80 bar). While only a slow consumption of PEO-1 was observed, the rapid consumption of PEO-2 led to a clean chain extension and the formation of a polyethylene (PE) segment. Upon polymerization, the resulting block copolymers PEO-b-PE self-assembled into nanometric objects according to a polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA).

Microstructure Characterization of Oceanic Polyethylene Debris.

Plastic pollution has become a worldwide concern. It was demonstrated that plastic breaks down to nanoscale particles in the environment, forming so-called nanoplastics. It is important to understand their ecological impact, but their structure is not elucidated. In this original work, we characterize the microstructure of oceanic polyethylene debris and compare it to the nonweathered objects. Cross sections are analyzed by several emergent mapping techniques. We highlight deep modifications of the debris within a layer a few hundred micrometers thick. The most intense modifications are macromolecule oxidation and a considerable decrease in the molecular weight. The adsorption of organic pollutants and trace metals is also confined to this outer layer. Fragmentation of the oxidized layer of the plastic debris is the most likely source of nanoplastics. Consequently the nanoplastic chemical nature differs greatly from plastics.

Effect of Alkyl Side Chain Length on Doping Kinetics, Thermopower, and Charge Transport Properties in Highly Oriented F4TCNQ-Doped PBTTT Films.

Doping of polymer semiconductors such as poly(2,5-bis(3-alkylthiophen-2-yl)thieno[3,2- b]thiophene) (PBTTT) with acceptor molecules such as 2,3,5,6-tetrafluoro-7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane (F4TCNQ) is widely used to tune the charge transport and thermoelectric (TE) properties in thin films. However, the mechanism of dopant insertion in the polymer matrix, insertion kinetics, and the ultimate doping levels reached have been investigated only marginally. This contribution addresses the effect of alkyl side chain length on the doping mechanism of a series of PBTTTs with linear side chains ranging from n-octyl to n-octyldecyl. The study focuses on thin films oriented by high-temperature rubbing and sequentially doped in F4TCNQ solution. Structure-property correlations are established as a function of side chain length by a combination of transmission electron microscopy, polarized UV-vis-NIR spectroscopy, and charge transport/thermopower measurements. Intercalation of F4TCNQ into the layers of side chains results in the expansion of the lattice along the side chains and the contraction along the π-stacking direction for all polymers. The extent of lattice expansion decreases with the increasing side chain length. UV-vis-NIR spectroscopy demonstrates integer charge transfer for all investigated PBTTTs. The doping kinetics and the final doping level depend on both the side chain length and packing. Highly disordered n-octyl and crystalline n-octyldecyl side chain layers tend to hamper dopant diffusion in the side chain layers contrary to n-dodecyl side chains that can host the highest proportion of dopants. Consequently, the best TE properties are observed for C12-PBTTT films. Alignment of the polymers significantly enhances the TE performance by increasing the charge conductivity and the thermopower along the rubbing direction. Aligned films of C12-PBTTT show charge conductivities of 193 S cm-1 along the rubbing direction and power factors of approximately 100 µW m-1 K-2 versus a few µW m-1 K-2 for nonoriented films.

Thermal Reduction of NOx with Recycled Plastics.

This study develops technology for mitigation of NOx formed in thermal processes using recycled plastics such as polyethylene (PE). Experiments involve sample characterization, and thermogravimetric decomposition of PE under controlled atmospheres, with NOx concentration relevant to industrial applications. TGA-Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and NOx chemiluminescence serve to obtain the removal efficiency of NOx by fragments of pyrolyzing PE. Typical NOx removal efficiency amounts to 80%. We apply the isoconversional method to derive the kinetic parameters, and observe an increasing dependency of activation energy on the reaction progress. The activation energies of the process span 135 kJ/mol to 226 kJ/mol, and 188 kJ/mol to 268 kJ/mol, for neat and recycled PE, respectively, and the so-called compensation effect accounts for the natural logarithmic pre-exponential ln (A/min-1) factors of ca. 19-35 and 28-41, in the same order, depending on the PE conversion in the experimental interval of between 5 and 95%. The observed delay in thermal events of recycled PE reflects different types of PE in the plastic, as measurements of intrinsic viscosity indicate that, the recycled PE comprises longer linear chains. The present evaluation of isoconversional activation energies affords accurate kinetic modeling of both isothermal and nonisothermal decomposition of PE in NOx-doped atmosphere. Subsequent investigations will focus on the effect of mass transfer and the presence of oxygen, as reburning of NOx in large-scale combustors take place at higher temperatures than those included in the current study.

To what extent are microplastics from the open ocean weathered?

It is necessary to better characterize plastic marine debris in order to understand its fate in the environment and interaction with organisms, the most common type of debris being made of polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP). In this work, plastic debris was collected in the North Atlantic sub-tropical gyre during the Expedition 7th Continent sea campaign and consisted mainly in PE. While the mechanisms of PE photodegradation and biodegradation in controlled laboratory conditions are well known, plastic weathering in the environment is not well understood. This is a difficult task to examine because debris comes from a variety of manufactured objects, the original compositions and properties of which vary considerably. A statistical approach was therefore used to compare four sample sets: reference PE, manufactured objects, mesoplastics (5-20 mm) and microplastics (0.3-5 mm). Infrared spectroscopy showed that the surface of all debris presented a higher oxidation state than the reference samples. Differential scanning calorimetry analysis revealed that the microplastics were more crystalline contrarily to the mesoplastics which were similar to references samples. Size exclusion chromatography showed that the molar mass decreased from the references to meso- and microplastics, revealing a clear degradation of the polymer chains. It was thus concluded that the morphology of marine microplastic was much altered and that an unambiguous shortening of the polymer chains took place even for this supposedly robust and inert polymer.

Patchy Supramolecular Bottle-Brushes Formed by Solution Self-Assembly of Bis(urea)s and Tris(urea)s Decorated by Two Incompatible Polymer Arms.

In an attempt to design urea-based Janus nanocylinders through a supramolecular approach, nonsymmetrical bis(urea)s and tris(urea)s decorated by two incompatible polymer arms, namely, poly(styrene) (PS) and poly(isobutylene) (PIB), were synthesized using rather straightforward organic and polymer chemistry techniques. Light scattering experiments revealed that these molecules self-assembled in cyclohexane by cooperative hydrogen bonds. The extent of self-assembly was limited for the bis(urea)s. On the contrary, reasonably anisotropic 1D structures (small nanocylinders) could be obtained with the tris(urea)s (Nagg ∼ 50) which developed six cooperative hydrogen bonds per molecule. (1)H transverse relaxation measurements and NOESY NMR experiments in cyclohexane revealed that perfect Janus nanocylinders with one face consisting of only PS and the other of PIB were not obtained. Nevertheless, phase segregation between the PS and PIB chains occurred to a large extent, resulting in patchy cylinders containing well separated domains of PIB and PS chains. Reasons for this behavior were proposed, paving the way to improve the proposed strategy toward true urea-based supramolecular Janus nanocylinders.

The parameters influencing the morphology of poly(ɛ-caprolactone) microspheres and the resulting release of encapsulated drugs.

Polymer microparticles used for drug encapsulation and delivery have various surface morphologies depending on the type of formulation ingredients and parameters of the manufacture process. This works aims at investigating the critical parameters governing the morphology of microparticles and to underline the influence of their surface state on the drug release. The classical fabrication process by the "emulsion-solvent evaporation" is addressed using poly(ɛ-caprolactone) as the polymer and methylene chloride as the volatile organic solvent. The typical surfactants poly(vinyl alcohol) and polysorbate 80 have been considered. Scanning electron microscopy observations showed the various surface morphologies mainly depending on the stirring rate, the viscosity of the oil phase and by the presence of inappropriate surfactants. Because of arrested coalescence during solvent evaporation, the evaporation of the organic solvent causing particles hardening is the most important parameter that controls the morphology. Indeed, slow evaporation allows partial coalescence of the soft particles swollen by the organic solvent, whereas the particles morphology is frozen rapidly upon fast evaporation, thus preventing damaged surface states. Moreover, an effective stabilizing system for the primary emulsion is also a determining factor to control the final morphology. The morphology of the particles has a definite influence on the drug delivery of cholecalciferol. The surface morphology should be taken into consideration in the design of polymer microparticles because it allows a control over the drug release kinetics.

Surfactants have multi-fold effects on skin barrier function.

BACKGROUND: The stratum corneum (SC) is responsible for the barrier properties of the skin and the role of intercorneocyte skin lipids, particularly their structural organization, in controlling SC permeability is acknowledged. Upon contacting the skin, surfactants interact with the SC components leading to barrier damage. OBJECTIVE: To improve knowledge of the effect of several classes of surfactant on skin barrier function at three different levels. METHODS: The influence of treatments of human skin explants with six non-ionic and four ionic surfactant solutions on the physicochemical properties of skin was investigated. Skin surface wettability and polarity were assessed through contact angle measurements. Infrared spectroscopy allowed monitoring the SC lipid organization. The lipid extraction potency of surfactants was evaluated thanks to HPLC-ELSD assays. RESULTS: One anionic and one cationic surfactant increased the skin polarity by removing the sebaceous and epidermal lipids and by disturbing the organization of the lipid matrix. Another cationic surfactant displayed a detergency effect without disturbing the skin barrier. Several non-ionic surfactants disturbed the lipid matrix organization and modified the skin wettability without any extraction of the skin lipids. Finally two non-ionic surfactants did not show any effect on the investigated parameters or on the skin barrier. CONCLUSIONS: The polarity, the organization of the lipid matrix and the lipid composition of the skin allowed describing finely how surfactants can interact with the skin and disturb the skin barrier function.

Small changes have consequences: lessons from tetrabenzyltitanium and -zirconium surface organometallic chemistry.

Homoleptic benzyl derivatives of titanium and zirconium have been grafted onto silica that was dehydroxylated at 200 and 700 °C, thereby affording bi-grafted and mono-grafted single-site species, respectively, as shown by a combination of experimental techniques (IR, MAS NMR, EXAFS, and elemental analysis) and theoretical calculations. Marked differences between these compounds and their neopentyl analogues are discussed and rationalized by using DFT. These differences were assigned to the selectivity of the grafting process, which, depending on the structure of the molecular precursors, led to different outcomes in terms of the mono- versus bi-grafted species for the same surface concentration of silanol species. The benzylzirconium derivatives were active towards ethylene polymerization in the absence of an activator and the bi-grafted species displayed higher activity than their mono-grafted analogues. In contrast, the benzyltitanium and neopentylzirconium counterparts were not active under similar reaction conditions.

Transforming frozen self-assemblies of amphiphilic block copolymers into dynamic pH-sensitive micelles.

The self-assembly in water of an amphiphilic P(nBMA(50%) -stat-DMAEMA(50%) )(100)-b-PDMAEMA(235) diblock copolymer based on hydrophilic dimethylaminoethylmethacrylate (DMAEMA) units and hydrophobic n-butylmethacrylate (nBMA) ones is reported. DMAEMA units have been incorporated into the hydrophobic block of this copolymer to moderate its hydrophobic character. Light scattering experiments revealed the formation of micelles whose apparent aggregation number varied reversibly with the ionization degree of the DMAEMA units. Incorporating hydrophilic units into the hydrophobic block of an amphiphilic block copolymer is thus a way to generate dynamic aggregates in aqueous medium. As this strategy was also successful using other types of hydrophilic units, we believe it to be universal.

Shifting from Ziegler-Natta to Philips-type catalyst? A simple and safe access to reduced titanium systems for ethylene polymerization.

Silica-supported titanium(IV) chloride is readily reduced by Mashima and co-workers' reagent (1-methyl-3,6-bis(trimethylsilyl)-1,4-cyclohexadiene) to afford materials active in ethylene polymerisation without need of aluminum alkyl cocatalyst.

Controlled release carriers of growth factors FGF-2 and TGFbeta1: synthesis, characterization and kinetic modelling.

The purpose of this work is to produce microspheres loaded with transforming growth factor beta1 TGFbeta1 and basic fibroblast growth factor FGF-2; to ensure the protein protection from degradation during the encapsulation and storage steps, to evaluate the release rate and the microspheres toxicity. The water in oil in water double emulsion technique was adapted to avoid the protein degradation during the encapsulation. The obtained microspheres were deeply characterized to evaluate their size, morphology, toxicity, the way of degradation, the protein stability and release rate. The microspheres were found to be biocompatible and the encapsulation efficiency was about 35%. It was observed that the obtained microspheres increase the shelf life of the growth factors. The diffusion coefficient was quantified using Fick's law of diffusion that was combined to an empirical equation representing the decrease in the protein stability. Such modelling helped to give indirect information about the microspheres morphology and drug distribution within the microspheres. The main conclusion consists of the formation of a higher compact polymer matrix when smaller particles are produced, which has different distinct effects: the encapsulation efficiency and the stability of the encapsulated growth factor are enhanced while both the growth factor diffusion and the polymer degradation rates decrease.

Microencapsulation of cytarabine using poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(epsilon-caprolactone) diblock copolymers as surfactant agents.

BACKGROUND: The high water solubility and the low molecular weight of cytarabine (Ara-C) are major obstacles against its particulate formulation as a result of its low affinity to the commonly used hydrophobic polymers. METHODS: Biodegradable cytarabine loaded-microparticles (Ara-C MPs) were elaborated using poly(-caprolactone) (PCL) and monomethoxy polyethylene glycol (mPEG)-PCL diblock copolymer in order to increase the hydrophilicity of the polymeric matrix. For this purpose, a series of mPEG-PCL diblock copolymers with different PCL block lengths were synthesized. Compositions and molecular weights of obtained copolymers were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance, size exclusion chromatography, and size exclusion chromatography-multi-angle laser light scattering. Ara-C MPs were prepared by double emulsion-solvent evaporation method. The effects of varying PCL block lengths on microparticle encapsulation efficiency, size, and zeta potential were evaluated. RESULTS: Increasing the PCL block lengths of copolymers substantially increased the Ara-C encapsulation efficiency and the microparticle size but it decreased their zeta potential. Microparticles were spherical in shape, with a smooth surface and composed of homogenously distributed Ara-C-containing aqueous domains in the polymer matrix. The in vitro drug release kinetics of the optimized microparticles showed a hyperbolic profile with an initial burst release. CONCLUSION: These results showed the important role of the amphiphilic diblock copolymers as stabilizing agent in the encapsulation of Ara-C in PCL microparticles, suggesting their potential use for the microparticulate formulations of other small hydrophilic bioactive molecules.