[Experimental analysis of processing stressful information: differential and age-related psychological aspects]. / Experimentelle Analysen zur Verarbeitung belastender Informationen: differential- und alternspsychologische Aspekte.

In two experimental studies with older subjects, the differential accessibility of palliative interpretations of negative situations was investigated using a scenario paradigm. Short episodes (formulated in a self-referent manner) were presented on a CRT-screen. Each story contained a palliative and distressing interpretation of a negative life situation. In a recognition test, the reaction time and the error variable were used as an index of accessibility of those aspects. In a pilot study (N = 62; age of subjects 49-79 years), it was found that the dispositional tendency to reinterpret negative life situations flexibly correlates positively with the accessibility of palliative information. Using a priming approach in the main study, it was shown that this result is based on a differential moderated association of the negative life-event and the type of information (i.e., palliative or distressing) (N = 120; age of subjects: 56-80 years). Especially with respect to scenarios which are centered on age-related declines, results were more pronounced with increasing age. The results are discussed in terms of a theory which contrasts active-instrumental efforts of coping with accommodative mechanisms of adjustment and reinterpretation.

Self-percepts of control in middle and later adulthood: buffering losses by rescaling goals.

The authors propose a model of how a sense of control is maintained in later adulthood through shifts in the subjective importance of developmental goals. Developmental goals and control beliefs were repeatedly assessed over an 8-year interval on a core sample of 735 participants (initial age range: 30-59 years). The findings reveal a high degree of stability in generalized perceptions of control even in the transition to later adulthood. In line with predictions, moderated multiple regressions indicated(a) that the degree to which self-percepts of control within a particular goal domain affect an individual's general sense of control depends on the personal importance of that domain, and (b) that losses of control within a goal domain affect general perceptions of control to a lesser degree if the importance of the respective domain is downscaled within the same longitudinal interval. Implications for theories of depression as well as for successful aging are discussed.

Developmental and personality correlates of adrenocortical activity as indexed by salivary cortisol: observations in the age range of 35 to 65 years.

Unstimulated salivary cortisol concentrations were measured in 767 adults aged 35-65 yr over the course of one day. Interindividual differences in early morning cortisol concentrations showed consistent and significant relationships with demographic and psychological variables. Socioeconomic status was positively associated with cortisol levels. Relationships of cortisol levels with age were moderated by gender: for women, a negative regression of cortisol level on age was observed while no significant age effects were obtained for men. In bivariate and multivariate regression analyses, a positive association between cortisol levels and indicators of successful development and personal well-being was observed; these relationships were more pronounced for the male sample. Intradyadic correlations further revealed a slight but significant association of morning cortisol levels within married couples. The findings are discussed with respect to mediating developmental mechanisms and pathophysiological implications.

Tenacious goal pursuit and flexible goal adjustment: explication and age-related analysis of assimilative and accommodative strategies of coping.

Crises and critical life transitions activate 2 distinct but complementary modes of coping, (a) transforming developmental circumstances in accordance with personal preferences (assimilative tendency) and (b) adjusting personal preferences to situational constraints (accommodative tendency). Assimilative and accommodative tendencies were measured by a questionnaire comprising 2 independent scales (Tenacious Goal Pursuit and Flexible Goal Adjustment). Both scales predict high life satisfaction and low depression and are positively related to generalized internal control beliefs. The scales evinced an opposite relation to age: Cross-sectional analyses on a sample of 890 Ss in the age range from 34 to 63 years revealed a gradual shift from an assimilative to an accommodative mode of coping. Implications for theories of depression and successful aging are discussed.

[Thoughts on a psychological model of optimal development]. / Gedanken zu einem psychologischen Modell optimaler Entwicklung.

Developmental planning and intervention involves technical decisions as well as decisions about developmental goals. The view that empirically oriented psychologists can only contribute to technical decisions is widely accepted but is seen to be open to serious question after a closer examination of some general characteristics of decision processes. It is argued that psychologists can also significantly contribute to decisions about developmental goals, especially if a "human-oriented" developmental planning is attempted, which takes human needs, interests and developmental motives into account. After regarding some basic problems in empirically substantiating hypotheses about individual needs and interests, arguments are advanced against "closed" developmental models, which are based on restrictive need-theoretical assumptions. Finally, some characteristics of an "open" model of optimal development are outlined.