The introduction of a minimum wage in Germany and the effects on physical activity participation.

The relationship between income and physical activity has been extensively studied. This paper utilizes the introduction of the minimum wage in Germany in 2015 as a quasi-experiment to determine the causal effect of minimum wages on the frequency of physical activity participation. Employing survey data from the German Socio-Economic Panel between 2013 and 2017, regression-adjusted difference-in-difference models combined with matching techniques are estimated. Our findings reveal a notable negative effect immediately after the minimum wage implementation on physical activity frequency. Given that the introduction of the minimum wage did not increase monthly gross income but reduced working hours, it appears that affected individuals exhibit preferences and engage in utility maximization that do not emphasize healthy behaviors. This effect is particularly pronounced among older females in white-collar occupations.

The relationship between leisure-time physical activity and job satisfaction: A dynamic panel data approach.

OBJECTIVE: Previous research has documented a positive effect of leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) on life satisfaction. The relationship between physical activity and the specific domain of job satisfaction is, however, relatively unknown. This study aims to investigate the effects of different frequency levels of LTPA on self-reported job satisfaction and specifically focuses on the two mechanisms of health and recovery from work stress. METHODS: Using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (2001-2019), fixed effects and dynamic panel data regression models are estimated to address the problems of unobserved heterogeneity and reverse causality. A mediation and sub-sample analysis shed light on the role of health and work stress. RESULTS: The results reveal that weekly LTPA has a positive effect on job satisfaction and that health represents a channel yielding those benefits. The effect appears to be moderated by work stress. Further, the analysis reveals the importance of considering unobserved heterogeneity and reverse causality when studying this relationship. CONCLUSION: The findings indicate a positive relationship between regular LTPA and job satisfaction and add plausible causal evidence to the limited literature in this context. The findings yield implications for employers and employees.

Physical Activity of Children and Adolescents during the COVID-19 Pandemic-A Scoping Review.

To counteract the COVIC-19 pandemic, many governments have introduced social distancing measures. While these restrictions helped contain the virus, it had adverse effects on individuals' mental and physical health-especially children. The aim of the present study is to review the evidence on the effects of COVID-19 restrictions on children's physical activity and their determinants. A scoping review was conducted in the databases PubMed, Web of Science, SportDiscus, and BISp-Surf. Inclusion criteria were empirical and peer-reviewed studies, youth samples, investigation of COVID-19 restrictions, and investigating changes and/or determinants of physical activity before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Risk of bias was assessed using the checklist by Downs and Black. The search resulted in 1672 studies, of which 84 studies were included in the analysis. The results highlighted a decrease in physical activity during the pandemic, ranging between -10.8 min/day and -91 min/day. If an increase was detected, it related to unstructured and outdoor activities. The main determinants of children's physical activity during the pandemic were age, gender, socioeconomic background, and the outdoor environment. The results imply that governments need to consider the negative effects that restrictive measures have on children's physical activity and act to ensure high levels of physical activity.

Dataset for the analysis of TV viewer response to live sport broadcasts and sponsor messages.

This paper presents data for the estimation of TV viewers' response to sponsor messages embedded in live sports broadcasts. The data were obtained from 11 participants who each watched a full live broadcast of a 2018 soccer World Cup group stage match in a laboratory. Viewer-related data include participants' heart rate, galvanic skin response, and visual attention to sponsor signage visible on screen throughout the entire game. The data additionally include game-related variables such as the minute of play and live betting odds over the course of the game. The data are structured longitudinally along 11 clusters, with 62,380 observations in total. Given the scarcity of real-time measures in the research of sport sponsorship effectiveness, these data can be used to investigate TV viewers' physiological response to live sports broadcasts in different stages of a game and improve the timing and targeting of commercial messages. For discussion and further information, please refer to the full-length article "Message personalization and real-time adaptation as next innovations in sport sponsorship management? How run-of-play and team affiliation affect viewer response" [1].

Individual Physical Activity Behaviour and Group Composition as Determinants of the Effectiveness of a Childhood Obesity Intervention Program.

INTRODUCTION: Up to now, there is limited clarity on factors that determine the effectiveness of childhood obesity interventions. OBJECTIVE: This study intends to uncover individual- and program-level predictors of BMI-SDS and fitness to achieve significant, sustainable health improvements. METHODS: Data of 249 children with obesity or overweight who participated in an outpatient multidisciplinary program were analysed and compared to 54 waitlist controls. Linear regression models were used to examine associations between individual- and group-level variables and BMI-SDS and fitness. RESULTS: Among intervention children, BMI-SDS decreased by 0.19 units and physical fitness increased by 11.5%, versus a BMI-SDS decrease of 0.07 and a 1.8% decrease in fitness in the control group. Participants who reported being physically active before the program start achieved greater improvements in BMI-SDS (ß = -0.177, p < 0.05) and physical fitness (ß = 0.174, p < 0.05) than inactive peers. BMI-SDS decreased significantly more for members of gender-heterogeneous groups (ß = 0.194, p < 0.05) with a narrow age range (ß = 0.152, p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The program under review is effective in counteracting juvenile obesity. The results give reason to believe that forming mixed-gender groups with a small age range and providing increased support for reportedly inactive children may improve program effectiveness.

The relationship between physical activity and out-of-pocket health care costs of the elderly in Europe.

BACKGROUND: Increasing health care costs represent an economic burden placed on individuals across many European countries. Against this backdrop, the aim of this study was to examine the relationship between participation in physical activity and out-of-pocket health care costs in Europe. METHODS: Individual data from the cross-national Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement (n = 94 267) including 16 European countries were utilized. Two-part models were estimated to investigate how different levels of participation frequency in physical activity are related to out-of-pocket costs (OOPC) for people aged 50 years and older. RESULTS: Only participation in physical activity more than once a week significantly decreases the probability of incurring any OOPC. However, all frequencies of physical activity significantly reduce the level of costs, with the highest savings being generated by participation once a week. The results reveal higher savings for men compared to women. CONCLUSION: Physical activity can be a useful policy instrument to reduce the economic burden of out-of-pocket health care costs for an aging population in Europe. Public officials should primarily promote physical activity interventions targeting older people who are not active at all.

Organizational-level determinants of participation in workplace health promotion programs: a cross-company study.

BACKGROUND: Attracted by the expected benefits such as reduced absenteeism and increased productivity, more and more firms decide to implement workplace health promotion programs (WHPPs). However, those programs can only be effective if employees actually participate. This study aims to (1) gain insight into the degree of enrolment rates in such programs across companies and (2) identify organizational level factors that are associated with employee participation. Building on existing theory on organizational drivers of participation in corporate wellness programs, the study's main goal is to investigate which organizational factors determine whether employees enroll in a corporate fitness program or not. METHODS: A business-to-business fitness platform company provided organizational level data on 61 client firms that have recently implemented a corporate wellness program. The data contained information on the enrolment rate per company and different organizational level variables. The following potential determinants of participation were analyzed: firm size, organizational program support and employee co-payment. A random effects model was used to examine associations between potential determinants and the program enrolment rate. RESULTS: The average participation is limited (15.37%) but varies highly across companies (range 0.07-100.00%, monthly basis). Looking at the determinants of program enrolment, we find that organizational program support - the degree to which firm leadership encourages participation - positively influences the enrolment rate (ß = 0.051 p < 0.001) while employee co-payment - the financial contribution employees have to make to participate - has a negative impact (ß = - 0.002, p < 0.001). Furthermore, firm size has a negative relationship with firm enrolment. CONCLUSIONS: Enrolment rates in WHPPs are limited, as many companies have difficulties to promote participation in WHPPs among employees. Strong organizational program support and low employee co-payment were identified as drivers of employee participation in corporate health programs. Hence, intensifying both social and financial support of employee participation may help to drive enrolment rates. Firm size was found to negatively affect the enrolment rate in WHPPs, implying that larger firms have to account for their size and corresponding complexity when implementing such a program.

How an aging society affects the economic costs of inactivity in Germany: empirical evidence and projections.

BACKGROUND: Aging societies represent a major challenge for health care systems all over the world. As older people tend to be more physically inactive, economic costs of inactivity are likely to increase notably. The present study aims to investigate this relationship between an aging society and economic costs of inactivity using the example of Germany. METHODS: Using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel, this study applied the comparative risk assessment method developed by the WHO to estimate the direct costs of inactivity for the period 2001-2013 differentiated by gender-specific age-groups (15-29; 30-44; 45-64; 65+). Based on population statistics predicting the aging of the German population for the years 2014-2060, this research projects the development of future costs of inactivity and potential effects of interventions promoting physical activity among the German population. RESULTS: The results reveal an increase in the level of physical activity during the observed period (2001-2013) which compensated the negative effect of aging and resulted in a decline of inactivity costs. The projections for the years 2014-2060 indicate a constant increase in direct per capita costs until 2060 because of an aging society. Scenarios indicating how a short-term reduction of physical inactivity impacts costs of inactivity reveal the crucial role of the oldest age-group in this context. CONCLUSION: The findings indicate that the aging of the German population demands further actions and initiatives to promote physical activity, especially for the oldest age-group.

Determinants of labour migration of elite sport coaches.

Previous research examining labour migration in sport focused on athletes in professional team sports. The purpose of this study is to analyse the factors influencing the migration probability of elite sport coaches in Germany (i.e. national coaches, state coaches, and coaches at Olympic training bases). From a theoretical perspective, labour migration of athletes is affected by economic, social, political, competitive, geographic and cultural factors. This study examines whether these factors can be applied to coaches. Primary data were collected using an online survey of elite sport coaches in Germany. Applying a conjoint design, respondents were presented with 10 migration scenarios leading to a sample size of n = 1860 for the empirical analysis. In the scenarios, the coaching position openings abroad differed in terms of income level, contract length, weekly workload, responsibility for personnel, reputation of coaching job, career perspectives, sporting performance of athletes, distance from Germany, and predominant job language. Coaches were asked for their migration probability contingent on the specific scenario. On average, migration probability was 24.2%. The results of regression analysis showed that higher income, contracts of longer duration, responsibility for personnel and speaking the respective language significantly increased the migration probability, while distances of nine flight hours and more, lower reputation and career perspectives reduced it. The findings have implications for policy-makers: they indicate in what areas the situation of coaches needs improvement to increase the likelihood of retaining elite sport coaches in the German sport system.

Physical activity and subjective well-being: the role of time.

This study examines the role of time in explaining the effect of physical activity on subjective well-being. Specifically, it looks at the composite structure of time needed for participation in a time-efficient fitness programme and how different time components affect satisfaction with health, leisure time, fitness, body and look. This quasi-experimental study consisted of three stages: (i) physical entry test and pre-survey, (ii) training intervention (30 min; performed twice a week over a 4-week period) and (iii) exit test and post-survey. A total of N = 10 481 individuals participated across 316 German fitness centres. Regression results show that total time spent significantly increases satisfaction with health and fitness. Time spent on approach and parking reduces satisfaction with leisure time, while time spent on wellness and showering increases it. Spending time in the bistro increases satisfaction with health and fitness. Time spent on the actual fitness training has no significant effect on either satisfaction measure. The findings indicate that it is important to consider the composite structure of time needed for physical activity because other activities matter more than the actual time spent on exercising. Public health policies and policy makers should therefore support such time-efficient programmes.

The effect of a four-week fitness program on satisfaction with health and life.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the effect of a 4-week fitness program on the participants' satisfaction with life and health. METHODS: The threefold study design comprised a physical entry test accompanied by a pre-survey, a fitness program (six strength exercises; two times 30 min per week over a 4-week period), and an exit test accompanied by a post-survey. Participants (69.9% female; mean age = 46.4; mean BMI = 25.9; N = 10,386) self-selected in the program in 316 fitness clubs across Germany. Regression analysis was used to isolate the effect of the fitness program while controlling for gender, age, age squared, education, income, motivation, physical performance, month, and state. RESULTS: Physical performance improved significantly (p < 0.001). The reported level of satisfaction with life and health was significantly higher after participation in the 4-week fitness program. CONCLUSIONS: Significant positive effects on subjective well-being can already be observed after a period as short as 4 weeks. Policy makers should support the provision of such time-efficient programs which are appealing to overweight population groups.

The influence of socio-demographic indicators economic determinants and social recognition on sport participation in Germany.

This article analyses sport participation using a demographic-economic model which was extended by the construct 'social recognition'. Social recognition was integrated into the model on the understanding that it is the purpose of each individual to maximise his or her utility. A computer-assisted telephone interview survey was conducted in the city of Rheinberg, Germany, producing an overall sample of n=1934. Regression analyses were performed to estimate the impact of socio-demographic, economic determinants, and social recognition on sport participation. The results suggest that various socio-economic factors and social recognition are important determinants of sport participation on the one hand, and on sport frequency on the other. Social recognition plays a significant yet different role for both sport participation and sport frequency. While friends' involvement with sport influences one's sport participation, parents' involvement with sport influences one's sport frequency.

Sport participation and subjective well-being: instrumental variable results from German survey data.

BACKGROUND: A major policy goal of many ministries of sport and health is increased participation in sport to promote health. A growing literature is emerging about the benefits of sport participation on happiness. A challenge in establishing a link between sport participation and happiness is controlling for endogeneity of sport participation in the happiness equation. METHODS: This study seeks to establish causal evidence of a relationship between sport participation and self reported happiness using instrumental variables (IV). RESULTS: IV estimates based on data from a 2009 population survey living in Rheinberg, Germany indicate that individuals who participate in sport have higher life happiness. The results suggest a U-shaped relationship between age and self-reported happiness. Higher income is associated with greater self-reported happiness, males are less happy than females, and single individuals are less happy than nonsingles. CONCLUSIONS: Since the results are IV, this finding is interpreted as a causal relationship between sport participation and subjective well-being (SWB). This broader impact of sport participation on general happiness lends support to the policy priority of many governments to increase sport participation at all levels of the general population.

Decreasing sports activity with increasing age? Findings from a 20-year longitudinal and cohort sequence analysis.

According to cross-sectional studies in sport science literature, decreasing sports activity with increasing age is generally assumed. In this paper, the validity of this assumption is checked by applying more effective methods of analysis, such as longitudinal and cohort sequence analyses. With the help of 20 years' worth of data records from the German SocioEconomic Panel, the development of sports activity over a lifespan is analyzed. According to inadequate cross-sectional analyses, sports activity decreases with increasing age. In contrast, longitudinal analyses show that sports activity increases with increasing age. Furthermore, cohort sequence analyses indicate that not only age but also cohort and period effects influence sports activity. Thus, different methods of analysis reveal opposite results.

Physical activity of adults aged 50 years and older in Switzerland.

OBJECTIVE: This study explores the prevalence of guideline-compliant physical activity (PA) behavior based on socio-demographic, health-related and environmental variables. METHODS: Cross-sectional data of the Swiss Health Survey 2002 were used in a Swiss population segment aged 50+. Four categories of PA were created with respect to Swiss and US guidelines: "moderate sports/exercise", "vigorous sports/exercise", "habitual PA", and "optimal PA" (i.e. combined variable used when both "vigorous sports/exercise" and "habitual PA" apply). Sedentary lifestyle was a fifth category. RESULTS: In the total sample considered for analysis (N = 8405) the prevalence of guideline-compliant PA was: 9.1% moderate sports/exercise; 18.2% vigorous sports/exercise; 45% habitual PA; 8.7% optimal PA. Almost 50% of the age groups 65-79 and 80+ were involved in habitual PA. Higher socio-economic status was associated with involvement in moderate sports/exercise, vigorous sports/exercise, or optimal PA. In contrast, lower socioeconomic status was associated with habitual PA. While living in an urban or rural environment had no differentiating effect on sports/exercise, living in rural areas was associated with a sedentary lifestyle and little involvement in habitual PA and/or optimal PA. Self-reported good health and/or health orientation were associated with vigorous sports/exercise, habitual PA and optimal PA, regardless of whether the person had chronic health problems or not. CONCLUSION: Habitual PA seems to have the greatest potential for increasing overall guideline-compliant activity levels. A behavioral/cognitive and political/environmental approach to improving PA is suggested.