Autism gene variants disrupt enteric neuron migration and cause gastrointestinal dysmotility.

The comorbidity of autism spectrum disorders and severe gastrointestinal symptoms is well-established, yet the molecular underpinnings remain unknown. The identification of high-confidence large-effect autism risk genes offers the opportunity to identify convergent, underlying biology by studying these genes in the context of the gastrointestinal system. Here we show that the expression of these genes is enriched in human prenatal gut neurons as well as their migratory progenitors, suggesting that the development and/or function of these neurons may be disrupted by autism-associated pathogenic variants, leading to gastrointestinal dysfunction. Here we document the prevalence of gastrointestinal issues in patients with large-effect variants in sixteen of these genes, highlighting dysmotility, consistent with potential enteric neuron dysfunction. Using the high-throughput diploid frog Xenopus tropicalis , we individually target five of these genes ( SYNGAP1, CHD8, SCN2A, CHD2 , and DYRK1A ) and observe disrupted enteric neuronal progenitor migration for each. More extensive analysis of DYRK1A reveals that perturbation causes gut dysmotility in vivo , which can be ameliorated by treatment with a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (escitalopram) or a serotonin receptor 6 agonist, identified by in vivo drug screening. This work suggests that atypical development of enteric neurons contributes to the gastrointestinal distress commonly seen in individuals with autism and that increasing serotonin signaling may be a productive therapeutic avenue.

Validation and clinical discovery demonstration of breast cancer data from a real-world data extraction platform.

Objective: To validate and demonstrate the clinical discovery utility of a novel patient-mediated, medical record collection and data extraction platform developed to improve access and utilization of real-world clinical data. Materials and Methods: Clinical variables were extracted from the medical records of 1011 consented patients with breast cancer. To validate the extracted data, case report forms completed using the structured data output of the platform were compared to manual chart review for 50 randomly-selected patients with metastatic breast cancer. To demonstrate the platform's clinical discovery utility, we identified 194 patients with early-stage clinical data who went on to develop distant metastases and utilized the platform-extracted data to assess associations between time to distant metastasis (TDM) and early-stage tumor histology, molecular type, and germline BRCA status. Results: The platform-extracted data for the validation cohort had 97.6% precision (91.98%-100% by variable type) and 81.48% recall (58.15%-95.00% by variable type) compared to manual chart review. In our discovery cohort, the shortest TDM was significantly associated with metaplastic (739.0 days) and inflammatory histologies (1005.8 days), HR-/HER2- molecular types (1187.4 days), and positive BRCA status (1042.5 days) as compared to other histologies, molecular types, and negative BRCA status, respectively. Multivariable analyses did not produce statistically significant results. Discussion: The precision and recall of platform-extracted clinical data are reported, although specificity could not be assessed. The data can generate clinically-relevant insights. Conclusion: The structured real-world data produced by a novel patient-mediated, medical record-extraction platform are reliable and can power clinical discovery.

Comprehensive phenotypes of patients with SYNGAP1-related disorder reveals high rates of epilepsy and autism.

OBJECTIVE: To delineate the comprehensive phenotypic spectrum of SYNGAP1-related disorder in a large patient cohort aggregated through a digital registry. METHODS: We obtained de-identified patient data from an online registry. Data were extracted from uploaded medical records. We reclassified all SYNGAP1 variants using American College of Medical Genetics criteria and included patients with pathogenic/likely pathogenic (P/LP) single nucleotide variants or microdeletions incorporating SYNGAP1. We analyzed neurodevelopmental phenotypes, including epilepsy, intellectual disability (ID), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), behavioral disorders, and gait dysfunction for all patients with respect to variant type and location within the SynGAP1 protein. RESULTS: We identified 147 patients (50% male, median age 8 years) with P/LP SYNGAP1 variants from 151 individuals with data available through the database. One hundred nine were truncating variants and 22 were missense. All patients were diagnosed with global developmental delay (GDD) and/or ID, and 123 patients (84%) were diagnosed with epilepsy. Of those with epilepsy, 73% of patients had GDD diagnosed before epilepsy was diagnosed. Other prominent features included autistic traits (n = 100, 68%), behavioral problems (n = 100, 68%), sleep problems (n = 90, 61%), anxiety (n = 35, 24%), ataxia or abnormal gait (n = 69, 47%), sensory problems (n = 32, 22%), and feeding difficulties (n = 69, 47%). Behavioral problems were more likely in those patients diagnosed with anxiety (odds ratio [OR] 3.6, p = .014) and sleep problems (OR 2.41, p = .015) but not necessarily those with autistic traits. Patients with variants in exons 1-4 were more likely to have the ability to speak in phrases vs those with variants in exons 5-19, and epilepsy occurred less frequently in patients with variants in the SH3 binding motif. SIGNIFICANCE: We demonstrate that the data obtained from a digital registry recapitulate earlier but smaller studies of SYNGAP1-related disorder and add additional genotype-phenotype relationships, validating the use of the digital registry. Access to data through digital registries broadens the possibilities for efficient data collection in rare diseases.

Delineating clinical and developmental outcomes in STXBP1-related disorders.

STXBP1-related disorders are among the most common genetic epilepsies and neurodevelopmental disorders. However, the longitudinal epilepsy course and developmental end points, have not yet been described in detail, which is a critical prerequisite for clinical trial readiness. Here, we assessed 1281 cumulative patient-years of seizure and developmental histories in 162 individuals with STXBP1-related disorders and established a natural history framework. STXBP1-related disorders are characterized by a dynamic pattern of seizures in the first year of life and high variability in neurodevelopmental trajectories in early childhood. Epilepsy onset differed across seizure types, with 90% cumulative onset for infantile spasms by 6 months and focal-onset seizures by 27 months of life. Epilepsy histories diverged between variant subgroups in the first 2 years of life, when individuals with protein-truncating variants and deletions in STXBP1 (n = 39) were more likely to have infantile spasms between 5 and 6 months followed by seizure remission, while individuals with missense variants (n = 30) had an increased risk for focal seizures and ongoing seizures after the first year. Developmental outcomes were mapped using milestone acquisition data in addition to standardized assessments including the Gross Motor Function Measure-66 Item Set and the Grasping and Visual-Motor Integration subsets of the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales. Quantification of end points revealed high variability during the first 5 years of life, with emerging stratification between clinical subgroups. An earlier epilepsy onset was associated with lower developmental abilities, most prominently when assessing gross motor development and expressive communication. We found that individuals with neonatal seizures or early infantile seizures followed by seizure offset by 12 months of life had more predictable seizure trajectories in early to late childhood compared to individuals with more severe seizure presentations, including individuals with refractory epilepsy throughout the first year. Characterization of anti-seizure medication response revealed age-dependent response over time, with phenobarbital, levetiracetam, topiramate and adrenocorticotropic hormone effective in reducing seizures in the first year of life, while clobazam and the ketogenic diet were effective in long-term seizure management. Virtual clinical trials using seizure frequency as the primary outcome resulted in wide range of trial success probabilities across the age span, with the highest probability in early childhood between 1 year and 3.5 years. In summary, we delineated epilepsy and developmental trajectories in STXBP1-related disorders using standardized measures, providing a foundation to interpret future therapeutic strategies and inform rational trial design.

The patient-specific mouse model with Foxg1 frameshift mutation uncovers the pathophysiology of FOXG1 syndrome.

Single allelic mutations in the gene encoding the forebrain-specific transcription factor FOXG1 lead to FOXG1 syndrome (FS). Patient-specific animal models are needed to understand the etiology of FS, as FS patients show a wide spectrum of symptoms correlated with location and mutation type in the FOXG1 gene. Here we report the first patient-specific FS mouse model, Q84Pfs heterozygous (Q84Pfs-Het) mice, mimicking one of the most predominant single nucleotide variants in FS. Intriguingly, we found that Q84Pfs-Het mice faithfully recapitulate human FS phenotypes at the cellular, brain structural, and behavioral levels. Importantly, Q84Pfs-Het mice exhibited myelination deficits like FS patients. Further, our transcriptome analysis of Q84Pfs-Het cortex revealed a new role for FOXG1 in synapse and oligodendrocyte development. The dysregulated genes in Q84Pfs-Het brains also predicted motor dysfunction and autism-like phenotypes. Correspondingly, Q84Pfs-Het mice showed movement deficits, repetitive behaviors, increased anxiety, and prolonged behavior arrest. Together, our study revealed the crucial postnatal role of FOXG1 in neuronal maturation and myelination and elucidated the essential pathophysiology mechanisms of FS.

Expanding genotype-phenotype correlations in FOXG1 syndrome: results from a patient registry.

BACKGROUND: We refine the clinical spectrum of FOXG1 syndrome and expand genotype-phenotype correlations through evaluation of 122 individuals enrolled in an international patient registry. METHODS: The FOXG1 syndrome online patient registry allows for remote collection of caregiver-reported outcomes. Inclusion required documentation of a (likely) pathogenic variant in FOXG1. Caregivers were administered a questionnaire to evaluate clinical severity of core features of FOXG1 syndrome. Genotype-phenotype correlations were determined using nonparametric analyses. RESULTS: We studied 122 registry participants with FOXG1 syndrome, aged < 12 months to 24 years. Caregivers described delayed or absent developmental milestone attainment, seizures (61%), and movement disorders (58%). Participants harbouring a missense variant had a milder phenotype. Compared to individuals with gene deletions (0%) or nonsense variants (20%), missense variants were associated with more frequent attainment of sitting (73%). Further, individuals with missense variants (41%) achieved independent walking more frequently than those with gene deletions (0%) or frameshift variants (6%). Presence of epilepsy also varied by genotype and was significantly more common in those with gene deletions (81%) compared to missense variants (47%). Individuals with gene deletions were more likely to have higher seizure burden than other genotypes with 53% reporting daily seizures, even at best control. We also observed that truncations preserving the forkhead DNA binding domain were associated with better developmental outcomes. CONCLUSION: We refine the phenotypic spectrum of neurodevelopmental features associated with FOXG1 syndrome. We strengthen genotype-driven outcomes, where missense variants are associated with a milder clinical course.

Delineating clinical and developmental outcomes in STXBP1-related disorders.

STXBP1-related disorders are among the most common genetic epilepsies and neurodevelopmental disorders. However, the longitudinal epilepsy course and developmental endpoints have not yet been described in detail, which is a critical prerequisite for clinical trial readiness. Here, we assessed 1,281 cumulative patient-years of seizure and developmental histories in 162 individuals with STXBP1-related disorders and established a natural history framework. STXBP1-related disorders are characterized by a dynamic pattern of seizures in the first year of life and high variability in neurodevelopmental trajectories in early childhood. Epilepsy onset differed across seizure types, with 90% cumulative onset for infantile spasms by 6 months and focal-onset seizures by 27 months of life. Epilepsy histories diverged between variant subgroups in the first 2 years of life, when individuals with protein-truncating variants and deletions in STXBP1 (n=39) were more likely to have infantile spasms between 5 and 6 months followed by seizure remission, while individuals with missense variants (n=30) had an increased risk for focal seizures and ongoing seizures after the first year. Developmental outcomes were mapped using milestone acquisition data in addition to standardized assessments including the Gross Motor Function Measure-66 Item Set and the Grasping and Visual-Motor Integration subsets of the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales. Quantification of endpoints revealed high variability during the first five years of life, with emerging stratification between clinical subgroups, most prominently between individuals with and without infantile spasms. We found that individuals with neonatal seizures or early infantile seizures followed by seizure offset by 12 months of life had more predictable seizure trajectories in early to late childhood than compared to individuals with more severe seizure presentations, including individuals with refractory epilepsy throughout the first year. Characterization of anti-seizure medication response revealed age-dependent response over time, with phenobarbital, levetiracetam, topiramate, and adrenocorticotropic hormone effective in reducing seizures in the first year of life, while clobazam and the ketogenic diet were effective in long-term seizure management. Virtual clinical trials using seizure frequency as the primary outcome resulted in wide range of trial success probabilities across the age span, with the highest probability in early childhood between 1 year and 3.5 years. In summary, we delineated epilepsy and developmental trajectories in STXBP1-related disorders using standardized measures, providing a foundation to interpret future therapeutic strategies and inform rational trial design.

Characterizing a rare neurogenetic disease, SLC13A5 citrate transporter disorder, utilizing clinical data in a cloud-based medical record collection system.

Introduction: SLC13A5 citrate transporter disorder is a rare autosomal recessive genetic disease that has a constellation of neurologic symptoms. To better characterize the neurologic and clinical laboratory phenotype, we utilized patient medical records collected by Ciitizen, an Invitae company, with support from the TESS Research Foundation. Methods: Medical records for 15 patients with a suspected genetic and clinical diagnosis of SLC13A5 citrate transporter disorder were collected by Ciitizen, an Invitae company. Genotype, clinical phenotypes, and laboratory data were extracted and analyzed. Results: The 15 patients reported all had epilepsy and global developmental delay. Patients continued to attain motor milestones, though much later than their typically developing peers. Clinical diagnoses support abnormalities in communication, and low or mixed tone with several movement disorders, including, ataxia and dystonia. Serum citrate was elevated in the 3 patients in whom it was measured; other routine laboratory studies assessing renal, liver and blood function had normal values or no consistent abnormalities. Many electroencephalograms (EEGs) were performed (1 to 35 per patient), and most but not all were abnormal, with slowing and/or epileptiform activity. Fourteen of the patients had one or more brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) reports: 7 patients had at least one normal brain MRI, but not with any consistent findings except white matter signal changes. Discussion: These results show that in addition to the epilepsy phenotype, SLC13A5 citrate transporter disorder impacts global development, with marked abnormalities in motor abilities, tone, coordination, and communication skills. Further, utilizing cloud-based medical records allows industry, academic, and patient advocacy group collaboration to provide preliminary characterization of a rare genetic disorder. Additional characterization of the neurologic phenotype will be critical to future study and developing treatment for this and related rare genetic disorders.

Inhibition of histone deacetylation with vorinostat does not prevent tunicamycin-mediated acute kidney injury.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is associated with acute kidney injury (AKI) caused by various mechanisms, including antibiotics, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, cisplatin, and radiocontrast. Tunicamycin (TM) is a nucleoside antibiotic that induces ER stress and is a commonly used model of AKI. 4-phenylbutyrate (4-PBA) is a chemical chaperone and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor and has been shown to protect the kidney from ER stress, apoptosis, and structural damage in a tunicamycin model of AKI. The renal protection provided by 4-PBA is attributed to its ability to prevent misfolded protein aggregation and inhibit ER stress; however, the HDAC inhibitor effects of 4-PBA have not been examined in the TM-induced model of AKI. As such, the main objective of this study was to determine if histone hyperacetylation provides any protective effects against TM-mediated AKI. The FDA-approved HDAC inhibitor vorinostat was used, as it has no ER stress inhibitory effects and therefore the histone hyperacetylation properties alone could be investigated. In vitro work demonstrated that vorinostat inhibited histone deacetylation in cultured proximal tubular cells but did not prevent ER stress or protein aggregation induced by TM. Vorinostat induced a significant increase in cell death, and exacerbated TM-mediated total cell death and apoptotic cell death. Wild type male mice were treated with TM (0.5 mg/kg, intraperitoneal injection), with or without vorinostat (50 mg/kg/day) or 4-PBA (1 g/kg/day). Mice treated with 4-PBA or vorinostat exhibited similar levels of histone hyperacetylation. Expression of the pro-apoptotic protein CHOP was induced with TM, and not inhibited by vorinostat. Further, vorinostat did not prevent any renal damage or decline in renal function caused by tunicamycin. These data suggest that the protective mechanisms found by 4-PBA are primarily due to its molecular chaperone properties, and the HDAC inhibitors used did not provide any protection against renal injury caused by ER stress.

The phenotypic and genetic spectrum of patients with heterozygous mutations in cyclin M2 (CNNM2).

Hypomagnesemia, seizures, and intellectual disability (HSMR) syndrome is a rare disorder caused by mutations in the cyclin M2 (CNNM2) gene. Due to the limited number of cases, extensive phenotype analyses of these patients have not been performed, hindering early recognition of patients. In this study, we established the largest cohort of HSMR to date, aiming to improve recognition and diagnosis of this complex disorder. Eleven novel variants in CNNM2 were identified in nine single sporadic cases and in two families with suspected HSMR syndrome. 25 Mg2+ uptake assays demonstrated loss-of-function in seven out of nine variants in CNNM2. Interestingly, the pathogenic mutations resulted in decreased plasma membrane expression. The phenotype of those affected by pathogenic CNNM2 mutations was compared with five previously reported cases of HSMR. All patients suffered from hypomagnesemia (0.44-0.72 mmol/L), which could not be fully corrected by Mg2+ supplementation. The majority of patients (77%) experienced generalized seizures and exhibited mild to moderate intellectual disability and speech delay. Moreover, severe obesity was present in most patients (89%). Our data establish hypomagnesemia, seizures, intellectual disability, and obesity as hallmarks of HSMR syndrome. The assessment of these major features offers a straightforward tool for the clinical diagnosis of HSMR.

Use of electronic medical record templates improves quality of care for patients with infantile spasms.

BACKGROUND: Infantile spasms (IS) is a neurologic disorder of childhood where time to treatment may affect long-term outcomes. Due to the clinical complexity of IS, care can be delayed. OBJECTIVE: To determine if the use of electronic medical record templates (EMRTs) improved care quality in patients treated for IS. METHOD: Records of patients newly diagnosed with IS were retrospectively reviewed both before and after creation of an EMRT for the workup and treatment of IS. Quality of care measures reviewed included delays in treatment plan, medication administration, obtaining neurodiagnostic studies and discharge. The need for repeat neurodiagnostic studies was also assessed. Resident physicians were surveyed regarding template ease of use and functionality. RESULTS: Of 17 patients with IS, 7 received template-based care and 10 did not. Patients in the non-template group had more delays in treatment (p = 0.010), delay in medication administration (p = 0.10), delay in diagnostic studies (p = 0.01) and delay in discharge (p = 0.39). Neurodiagnostic studies needed to be repeated in 5 out of 10 patients in the non-template group and none of the 7 patients in the template group (p = 0.04). Surveyed resident physicians reported improved coordination in care, avoidance of delays in discharge and improved ability to predict side effects of treatment with template use. CONCLUSION: In a single centre, the use of protocolised EMRTs decreased treatment delays and the need for repeated invasive procedures in patients with newly diagnosed IS and was reported as easy to use by resident physicians. IMPLICATIONS: The use of protocolised EMRTs may improve the quality of patient care in IS and other rare diseases.

Metabolic Disorders Presenting with Seizures in the Neonatal Period.

Metabolic disorders represent rare but often treatable causes of seizures and epilepsy of neonatal onset. As seizures are relatively common in the neonatal period, systemic clues to a specific diagnosis may be lacking or shrouded by acute illness. An important role of the consulting pediatric neurologist is to identify neonates with a possible metabolic or otherwise genetic diagnosis. In this review, the authors describe presenting signs and symptoms, a diagnostic framework, and disorder-specific treatment options for inborn errors of metabolism that may present in the neonatal period. Specific attention is given to the neurologic aspects of each condition, including the electroclinical phenotype and findings on brain imaging. As expedited diagnosis and prompt initiation of available therapies have been demonstrated to result in improved epilepsy and developmental outcomes, this work acts as a framework to guide evaluation when an inherited metabolic disorder is suspected. In addition to informing treatment, a definitive diagnosis allows for appropriate counseling regarding prognosis, any associated screening or preventive measures, and family planning.

Expanding the molecular and clinical phenotypes of FUT8-CDG.

Pathogenic variants in the Golgi localised alpha 1,6 fucosyltransferase, FUT8, cause a rare inherited metabolic disorder known as FUT8-CDG. To date, only three affected individuals have been reported presenting with a constellation of symptoms including intrauterine growth restriction, severe delays in growth and development, other neurological impairments, significantly shortened limbs, respiratory complications, and shortened lifespan. Here, we report an additional four unrelated affected individuals homozygous for novel pathogenic variants in FUT8. Analysis of serum N-glycans revealed a complete lack of core fucosylation, an important diagnostic biomarker of FUT8-CDG. Our data expands both the molecular and clinical phenotypes of FUT8-CDG and highlights the importance of identifying a reliable biomarker for confirming potentially pathogenic variants.

Genetic and phenotypic spectrum associated with IFIH1 gain-of-function.

IFIH1 gain-of-function has been reported as a cause of a type I interferonopathy encompassing a spectrum of autoinflammatory phenotypes including Aicardi-Goutières syndrome and Singleton Merten syndrome. Ascertaining patients through a European and North American collaboration, we set out to describe the molecular, clinical and interferon status of a cohort of individuals with pathogenic heterozygous mutations in IFIH1. We identified 74 individuals from 51 families segregating a total of 27 likely pathogenic mutations in IFIH1. Ten adult individuals, 13.5% of all mutation carriers, were clinically asymptomatic (with seven of these aged over 50 years). All mutations were associated with enhanced type I interferon signaling, including six variants (22%) which were predicted as benign according to multiple in silico pathogenicity programs. The identified mutations cluster close to the ATP binding region of the protein. These data confirm variable expression and nonpenetrance as important characteristics of the IFIH1 genotype, a consistent association with enhanced type I interferon signaling, and a common mutational mechanism involving increased RNA binding affinity or decreased efficiency of ATP hydrolysis and filament disassembly rate.

Case studies in neuroscience: a novel amino acid duplication in the NH2-terminus of the brain sodium channel NaV1.1 underlying Dravet syndrome.

Dravet syndrome is a severe form of childhood epilepsy characterized by frequent temperature-sensitive seizures and delays in cognitive development. In the majority (80%) of cases, Dravet syndrome is caused by mutations in the SCN1A gene, encoding the voltage-gated sodium channel NaV1.1, which is abundant in the central nervous system. Dravet syndrome can be caused by either gain-of-function mutation or loss of function in NaV1.1, making it necessary to characterize each novel mutation. Here we use a combination of patch-clamp recordings and immunocytochemistry to characterize the first known NH2-terminal amino acid duplication mutation found in a patient with Dravet syndrome, M72dup. M72dup does not significantly alter rate of fast inactivation recovery or rate of fast inactivation onset at any measured membrane potential. M72dup significantly shifts the midpoint of the conductance voltage relationship to more hyperpolarized potentials. Most interestingly, M72dup significantly reduces peak current of NaV1.1 and reduces membrane expression. This suggests that M72dup acts as a loss-of-function mutation primarily by impacting the ability of the channel to localize to the plasma membrane.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Genetic screening of a patient with Dravet syndrome revealed a novel mutation in SCN1A. Of over 700 SCN1A mutations known to cause Dravet syndrome, M72dup is the first to be identified in the NH2-terminus of NaV1.1. We studied M72dup using patch-clamp electrophysiology and immunocytochemistry. M72dup causes a decrease in membrane expression of NaV1.1 and overall loss of function, consistent with the role of the NH2-terminal region in membrane trafficking of NaV1.1.

De Novo Missense Substitutions in the Gene Encoding CDK8, a Regulator of the Mediator Complex, Cause a Syndromic Developmental Disorder.

The Mediator is an evolutionarily conserved, multi-subunit complex that regulates multiple steps of transcription. Mediator activity is regulated by the reversible association of a four-subunit module comprising CDK8 or CDK19 kinases, together with cyclin C, MED12 or MED12L, and MED13 or MED13L. Mutations in MED12, MED13, and MED13L were previously identified in syndromic developmental disorders with overlapping phenotypes. Here, we report CDK8 mutations (located at 13q12.13) that cause a phenotypically related disorder. Using whole-exome or whole-genome sequencing, and by international collaboration, we identified eight different heterozygous missense CDK8 substitutions, including 10 shown to have arisen de novo, in 12 unrelated subjects; a recurrent mutation, c.185C>T (p.Ser62Leu), was present in five individuals. All predicted substitutions localize to the ATP-binding pocket of the kinase domain. Affected individuals have overlapping phenotypes characterized by hypotonia, mild to moderate intellectual disability, behavioral disorders, and variable facial dysmorphism. Congenital heart disease occurred in six subjects; additional features present in multiple individuals included agenesis of the corpus callosum, ano-rectal malformations, seizures, and hearing or visual impairments. To evaluate the functional impact of the mutations, we measured phosphorylation at STAT1-Ser727, a known CDK8 substrate, in a CDK8 and CDK19 CRISPR double-knockout cell line transfected with wild-type (WT) or mutant CDK8 constructs. These experiments demonstrated a reduction in STAT1 phosphorylation by all mutants, in most cases to a similar extent as in a kinase-dead control. We conclude that missense mutations in CDK8 cause a developmental disorder that has phenotypic similarity to syndromes associated with mutations in other subunits of the Mediator kinase module, indicating probable overlap in pathogenic mechanisms.

Clinical Transcriptome Sequencing Confirms Activation of a Cryptic Splice Site in Suspected SYNGAP1-Related Disorder.

SYNGAP1 encodes a brain-specific Ras GTPase activating protein (GAP) that regulates synaptic strength in glutamatergic neurons. Pathogenic variants in this gene are associated with a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by intellectual and developmental disabilities, generalized epilepsy, hypotonia, and autism spectrum disorders. We describe a young male with suspected SYNGAP1-related disorder given clinical overlap and identification of an intronic variant of uncertain significance; clinical transcriptome analysis demonstrated activation of a cryptic acceptor splice site resulting in frameshift and introduction of a stop codon. This report highlights the utility of functional studies newly available to clinical practice in confirming a suspected genetic diagnosis, which can directly impact medical management and preclude the need for additional diagnostic testing.

PLPHP deficiency: clinical, genetic, biochemical, and mechanistic insights.

Biallelic pathogenic variants in PLPBP (formerly called PROSC) have recently been shown to cause a novel form of vitamin B6-dependent epilepsy, the pathophysiological basis of which is poorly understood. When left untreated, the disease can progress to status epilepticus and death in infancy. Here we present 12 previously undescribed patients and six novel pathogenic variants in PLPBP. Suspected clinical diagnoses prior to identification of PLPBP variants included mitochondrial encephalopathy (two patients), folinic acid-responsive epilepsy (one patient) and a movement disorder compatible with AADC deficiency (one patient). The encoded protein, PLPHP is believed to be crucial for B6 homeostasis. We modelled the pathogenicity of the variants and developed a clinical severity scoring system. The most severe phenotypes were associated with variants leading to loss of function of PLPBP or significantly affecting protein stability/PLP-binding. To explore the pathophysiology of this disease further, we developed the first zebrafish model of PLPHP deficiency using CRISPR/Cas9. Our model recapitulates the disease, with plpbp-/- larvae showing behavioural, biochemical, and electrophysiological signs of seizure activity by 10 days post-fertilization and early death by 16 days post-fertilization. Treatment with pyridoxine significantly improved the epileptic phenotype and extended lifespan in plpbp-/- animals. Larvae had disruptions in amino acid metabolism as well as GABA and catecholamine biosynthesis, indicating impairment of PLP-dependent enzymatic activities. Using mass spectrometry, we observed significant B6 vitamer level changes in plpbp-/- zebrafish, patient fibroblasts and PLPHP-deficient HEK293 cells. Additional studies in human cells and yeast provide the first empirical evidence that PLPHP is localized in mitochondria and may play a role in mitochondrial metabolism. These models provide new insights into disease mechanisms and can serve as a platform for drug discovery.