Designing heterotropically activated allosteric conformational switches using supercharging.

Heterotropic allosteric activation of protein function, in which binding of one ligand thermodynamically activates the binding of another, different ligand or substrate, is a fundamental control mechanism in metabolism and as such has been a long-aspired capability in protein design. Here we show that greatly increasing the magnitude of a protein's net charge using surface supercharging transforms that protein into an allosteric ligand- and counterion-gated conformational molecular switch. To demonstrate this we first modified the designed helical bundle hemoprotein H4, creating a highly charged protein which both unfolds reversibly at low ionic strength and undergoes the ligand-induced folding transition commonly observed in signal transduction by intrinsically disordered proteins in biology. As a result of the high surface-charge density, ligand binding to this protein is allosterically activated up to 1,300-fold by low concentrations of divalent cations and the polyamine spermine. To extend this process further using a natural protein, we similarly modified Escherichia coli cytochrome b562 and the resulting protein behaves in a like manner. These simple model systems not only establish a set of general engineering principles which can be used to convert natural and designed soluble proteins into allosteric molecular switches useful in biodesign, sensing, and synthetic biology, the behavior we have demonstrated--functional activation of supercharged intrinsically disordered proteins by low concentrations of multivalent ions--may be a control mechanism utilized by Nature which has yet to be appreciated.

Probing Charge Transport through Peptide Bonds.

We measure the conductance of unmodified peptides at the single-molecule level using the scanning tunneling microscope-based break-junction method, utilizing the N-terminal amine group and the C-terminal carboxyl group as gold metal-binding linkers. Our conductance measurements of oligoglycine and oligoalanine backbones do not rely on peptide side-chain linkers. We compare our results with alkanes terminated asymmetrically with an amine group on one end and a carboxyl group on the other to show that peptide bonds decrease the conductance of an otherwise saturated carbon chain. Using a newly developed first-principles approach, we attribute the decrease in conductance to charge localization at the peptide bond, which reduces the energy of the frontier orbitals relative to the Fermi energy and the electronic coupling to the leads, lowering the tunneling probability. Crucially, this manifests as an increase in conductance decay of peptide backbones with increasing length when compared with alkanes.

Fast, cheap and out of control--Insights into thermodynamic and informatic constraints on natural protein sequences from de novo protein design.

The accumulated results of thirty years of rational and computational de novo protein design have taught us important lessons about the stability, information content, and evolution of natural proteins. First, de novo protein design has complicated the assertion that biological function is equivalent to biological structure - demonstrating the capacity to abstract active sites from natural contexts and paste them into non-native topologies without loss of function. The structure-function relationship has thus been revealed to be either a generality or strictly true only in a local sense. Second, the simplification to "maquette" topologies carried out by rational protein design also has demonstrated that even sophisticated functions such as conformational switching, cooperative ligand binding, and light-activated electron transfer can be achieved with low-information design approaches. This is because for simple topologies the functional footprint in sequence space is enormous and easily exceeds the number of structures which could have possibly existed in the history of life on Earth. Finally, the pervasiveness of extraordinary stability in designed proteins challenges accepted models for the "marginal stability" of natural proteins, suggesting that there must be a selection pressure against highly stable proteins. This can be explained using recent theories which relate non-equilibrium thermodynamics and self-replication. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Biodesign for Bioenergetics--The design and engineering of electronc transfer cofactors, proteins and protein networks, edited by Ronald L. Koder and J.L. Ross Anderson.

A three-dimensional printed cell for rapid, low-volume spectroelectrochemistry.

We have used three-dimensional (3D) printing technology to create an inexpensive spectroelectrochemical cell insert that fits inside a standard cuvette and can be used with any transmission spectrometer. The cell positions the working, counter, and reference electrodes and has an interior volume of approximately 200 µl while simultaneously providing a full 1-cm path length for spectroscopic measurements. This method reduces the time required to perform a potentiometric titration on a molecule compared with standard chemical titration methods and achieves complete electrolysis of protein samples within minutes. Thus, the device combines the best aspects of thin-layer cells and standard potentiometry.