Transverse Compression of Tendons.

A study was made of the deformation of tendons when compressed transverse to the fiber-aligned axis. Bovine digital extensor tendons were compression tested between flat rigid plates. The methods included: in situ image-based measurement of tendon cross-sectional shapes, after preconditioning but immediately prior to testing; multiple constant-load creep/recovery tests applied to each tendon at increasing loads; and measurements of the resulting tendon displacements in both transverse directions. In these tests, friction resisted axial stretch of the tendon during compression, giving approximately plane-strain conditions. This, together with the assumption of a form of anisotropic hyperelastic constitutive model proposed previously for tendon, justified modeling the isochronal response of tendon as that of an isotropic, slightly compressible, neo-Hookean solid. Inverse analysis, using finite-element (FE) simulations of the experiments and 10 s isochronal creep displacement data, gave values for Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio of this solid of 0.31 MPa and 0.49, respectively, for an idealized tendon shape and averaged data for all the tendons and E = 0.14 and 0.10 MPa for two specific tendons using their actual measured geometry. The compression load versus displacement curves, as measured and as simulated, showed varying degrees of stiffening with increasing load. This can be attributed mostly to geometrical changes in tendon cross section under load, varying according to the initial 3D shape of the tendon.

The integrity of welded interfaces in ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene: Part 2--interface toughness.

In Part 2 of a study of welding of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), experiments were conducted to measure the interfacial fracture energy of butt welds, for various welding times and temperatures above the melting point. Their toughness was investigated at 37 degrees C in terms of their fracture energy, obtained by adapting the essential work of fracture (EWF) method. However, a proportion of the welded samples (generally decreasing with increasing welding time or temperature) failed in dual ductile/brittle mode, hence invalidating the EWF test. Even those failing in purely ductile mode showed a measurable interface work of fracture only for the highest weld temperature and time: 188 degrees C and 90 min. Results from the model presented in Part 1 show that this corresponds to the maximum reptated molecular weight reaching close to the peak in the molar mass distribution. Hence this work provides the first experimental evidence that the slow rate of self-diffusion in UHMWPE leads to welded interfaces acting as low-toughness crack paths. Since such interfaces exist around every powder particle in processed UHMWPE this problem cannot be avoided, and it must be accommodated in design of hip and knee bearing surfaces made from this polymer.

The integrity of welded interfaces in ultra high molecular weight polyethylene: Part 1-Model.

The difficulty of eradicating memory of powder-particle interfaces in UHMWPE for bearing surfaces for hip and knee replacements is well-known, and 'fusion defects' have been implicated frequently in joint failures. During processing the polymer is formed into solid directly from the reactor powder, under pressure and at temperatures above the melting point, and two types of inter-particle defect occur: Type 1 (consolidation-deficient) and Type 2 (diffusion-deficient). To gain quantitative information on the extent of the problem, the formation of macroscopic butt welds in this material was studied, by (1) modelling the process and (2) measuring experimentally the resultant evolution of interface toughness. This paper reports on the model. A quantitative measure of interface structural integrity is defined, and related to the "maximum reptated molecular weight" introduced previously. The model assumes an idealised surface topography. It is used to calculate the evolution of interface integrity during welding, for given values of temperature, pressure, and parameters describing the surfaces, and a given molar mass distribution. Only four material properties are needed for the calculation; all of them available for polyethylene. The model shows that, for UHMWPE typically employed in knee transplants, the rate of eradication of Type 1 defects is highly sensitive to surface topography, process temperature and pressure. Also, even if Type 1 defects are prevented, Type 2 defects heal extremely slowly. They must be an intrinsic feature of UHMWPE for all reasonable forming conditions, and products and forming processes should be designed accordingly.