The COSPAR planetary protection policy for missions to Icy Worlds: A review of history, current scientific knowledge, and future directions.

Recent discoveries related to the habitability and astrobiological relevance of the outer Solar System have expanded our understanding of where and how life may have originated. As a result, the Icy Worlds of the outer Solar System have become among the highest priority targets for future spacecraft missions dedicated to astrobiology-focused and/or direct life detection objectives. This, in turn, has led to a renewed interest in planetary protection concerns and policies for the exploration of these worlds and has been a topic of discussion within the COSPAR (Committee on Space Research) Panel on Planetary Protection. This paper summarizes the results of those discussions, reviewing the current knowledge and the history of planetary protection considerations for Icy Worlds as well as suggesting ways forward. Based on those discussions, we therefore suggest to (1) Establish a new definition for Icy Worlds for Planetary Protection that captures the outer Solar System moons and dwarf planets like Pluto, but excludes more primitive bodies such as comets, centaurs, and asteroids: Icy Worlds in our Solar System are defined as all bodies with an outermost layer that is believed to be greater than 50 % water ice by volume and have enough mass to assume a nearly round shape. (2) Establish indices for the lower limits of Earth life with regards to water activity (LLAw) and temperature (LLT) and apply them into all areas of the COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy. These values are currently set at 0.5 and -28 °C and were originally established for defining Mars Special Regions; (3) Establish LLT as a parameter to assign categorization for Icy Worlds missions. The suggested categorization will have a 1000-year period of biological exploration, to be applied to all Icy Worlds and not just Europa and Enceladus as is currently the case. (4) Have all missions consider the possibility of impact. Transient thermal anomalies caused by impact would be acceptable so long as there is less than 10-4 probability of a single microbe reaching deeper environments where temperature is >LLT in the period of biological exploration. (5) Restructure or remove Category II* from the policy as it becomes largely redundant with this new approach, (6) Establish that any sample return from an Icy World should be Category V restricted Earth return.

Landslides on Ceres: Diversity and Geologic Context.

Landslides are among the most widespread geologic features on Ceres. Using data from Dawn's Framing Camera, landslides were previously classified based upon geomorphologic characteristics into one of three archetypal categories, Type 1(T1), Type 2 (T2), and Type 3 (T3). Due to their geologic context, variation in age, and physical characteristics, most landslides on Ceres are, however, intermediate in their morphology and physical properties between the archetypes of each landslide class. Here we describe the varied morphology of individual intermediate landslides, identify geologic controls that contribute to this variation, and provide first-order quantification of the physical properties of the continuum of Ceres's surface flows. These intermediate flows appear in varied settings and show a range of characteristics, including those found at contacts between craters, those having multiple trunks or lobes; showing characteristics of both T2 and T3 landslides; material slumping on crater rims; very small, ejecta-like flows; and those appearing inside of catenae. We suggest that while their morphologies can vary, the distribution and mechanical properties of intermediate landslides do not differ significantly from that of archetypal landslides, confirming a link between landslides and subsurface ice. We also find that most intermediate landslides are similar to Type 2 landslides and formed by shallow failure. Clusters of these features suggest ice enhancement near Juling, Kupalo and Urvara craters. Since the majority of Ceres's landslides fall in the intermediate landslide category, placing their attributes in context contributes to a better understanding of Ceres's shallow subsurface and the nature of ground ice.

High-frequency switching of colony morphology in Candida albicans.

The pathogenic yeast Candida albicans switches heritably and at high frequency between at least seven general phenotypes identified by colony morphology on agar. Spontaneous conversion from the original smooth to variant phenotypes (star, ring, irregular wrinkle, hat, stipple, and fuzzy) occurs at a combined frequency of 1.4 X 10(-4), but is increased 200 times by a low dose of ultraviolet light that kills less than 10 percent of the cells. After the initial conversion, cells switch spontaneously to other phenotypes at a combined frequency of 2 X 10(-2). Switching is therefore heritable, but also reversible at high frequency. The genetic basis of this newly discovered process and its possible role in Candida pathogenesis are considered.

A characterization of pH-regulated dimorphism in Candida albicans.

When cells of the dimorphic yeast Candida albicans are grown to stationary phase in defined liquid medium at 25 degrees C, they accumulate as singlets in G1 of the cell cycle. When these pluripotent, stationary phase singlets are released into fresh medium at 37 degrees C, they synchronously evaginate after an average period of 135 to 140 minutes and form either buds or mycelia, depending upon the pH of the medium into which they are released. This method of dimorphic regulation offers the distinct advantage of comparability and serves as a very precise method for temporal comparisons of molecular and cytological events related to the establishment of the alternate growth phenotypes. In the present report, we have carefully examined the effects of individually varying pH or temperature on the length of the pre-evagination period, the population synchrony for evagination, and the phenotype of daughter cells. Exact phenotypic transition points, optima, and upper limits are defined for both temperature and pH. In addition, a method of pH-regulated dimorphism is developed in which the original temperature shift is removed from the inductive process. Finally, a common transition phenotype is described for cells reverting from the initial mycelial to budding phenotype when either pH or temperature traverse their respective transition points. The advantages as well as limitations of pH-regulated dimorphism are discussed in detail.