Recent Advances in the Use of Stem Cells in Tissue Engineering and Adjunct Therapies for Tendon Reconstruction and Future Perspectives.

Due to their function, tendons are exposed to acute injuries. This type of damage to the musculoskeletal system represents a challenge for clinicians when natural regeneration and treatment methods do not produce the expected results. Currently, treatment is long and associated with long-term complications. In this review, we discuss the use of stem cells in the treatment of tendons, including how to induce appropriate cell differentiation based on gene therapy, growth factors, tissue engineering, proteins involved in regenerative process, drugs and three-dimensional (3D) structures. A multidirectional approach as well as the incorporation of novel components of the therapy will improve the techniques used and benefit patients with tendon injuries in the future.

The effect of plasma cytokines on the expression of adiponectin and its receptors in the synovial membrane of joints and the infrapatellar fat pad in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis.

BACKGROUND: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune inflammatory disease that leads to joint destruction. Numerous pro-inflammatory mediators, including adipokines, play an important role in the pathogenesis of RA. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to investigate the relationships between selected plasma cytokines and expression of adiponectin and its receptors in the synovium and the infrapatellar fat pad in patients with RA and osteoarthritis (OA). METHODS: Blood, synovium and fat pad samples from 18 patients with RA and 18 with OA were collected during joint replacement surgery. Spearman rank correlations between plasma concentrations of selected cytokines (IL-1ß, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12 p40, IL-13, IL-17, G-CSF and GM-CSF) and the expression of adiponectin and its receptors were determined. Plasma levels of cytokines were determined using a magnetic bead-based multiplex assay, mRNA expression of adiponectin and its receptors were determined by real-time PCR. RESULTS: In OA patients, there were significant positive correlations between adiponectin expression in the synovial membrane and plasma levels of IL-1ß, IL-4, G-CSF and GM-CSF, as well as a significant positive correlation between adiponectin expression in the fat pad and plasma levels of GM-CSF. In addition, OA patients showed significant negative correlations between AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 expression in the synovial membrane and plasma IL-6 levels, as well as between AdipoR2 expression in the synovial membrane and plasma MCP-1 and TNF-α levels. In patients with RA, there were no significant correlations between adiponectin expression in the synovial membrane and infrapatellar fat pad and plasma levels of the cytokines studied. In addition, RA patients showed a statistically significant negative correlation between AdipoR1 expression in the synovial membrane and plasma levels of TNF-α, IL-7, IL-12 and IL-13, and a significant negative correlation between AdipoR1 expression in the infrapatellar fat pad and plasma levels of IL-1ß. CONCLUSIONS: Adiponectin and its receptors showed the correlations with several plasma cytokines, however, a thorough understanding of the role of adiponectin in RA and OA requires further investigation.