Dopamine and glutamate interaction mediates reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior by stimulation of the ventral subiculum.

BACKGROUND: Drug addiction is a chronic brain disease characterized by recurrent episodes of relapse to drug-seeking/-taking behaviors. The ventral subiculum, the primary output of the hippocampus, plays a critical role in mediating drug-seeking behavior. METHODS: A d-amphetamine intravenous self-administration rat model was employed along with focal electrical stimulation of the ventral subiculum (20 Hz/200 pulses) to examine its role in reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior. Dopamine efflux in the nucleus accumbens was measured by in vivo microdialysis and subsequent HPLC-ED analyses. Pharmacological antagonism of dopamine and ionotropic glutamate receptors locally within the nucleus accumbens was employed to assess the role of glutamate and dopamine in reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior induced by stimulation of the ventral subiculum. RESULTS: Here, we demonstrate that reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior following extinction of d-amphetamine self-administration by rats was induced by electrical stimulation in the ventral subiculum but not the cortex. This reinstatement was accompanied by a significant increase in dopamine efflux in the nucleus accumbens and was disrupted by microinfusion of a dopamine D1 or D2 antagonist into the nucleus accumbens. Inhibition of N-methyl-D-aspartate or non- N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors had no effect on the reinstatement induced by ventral subiculum stimulation, whereas co-infusion of D1 and N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonists at formerly ineffective doses prevented drug-seeking behavior. CONCLUSIONS: These data support the hypothesis that dopamine/glutamate interactions within the ventral striatum related to memory processes are involved in relapse to addictive behavior.

Glucocorticoid receptors in the prefrontal cortex regulate dopamine efflux to stress via descending glutamatergic feedback to the ventral tegmental area.

Enhanced dopamine (DA) efflux in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is a well-documented response to acute stress. We have previously shown that glucocorticoid receptors in the mPFC regulate stress-evoked DA efflux but the underlying mechanism is unknown. DA neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) receive excitatory input from and send reciprocal projections to the mPFC. We hypothesize that blockade of prefrontal glucocorticoid receptors can reduce activity of descending glutamatergic input to the VTA, thereby attenuating stress-evoked DA efflux in the mPFC. Using in vivo microdialysis, we demonstrate that acute tail-pinch stress leads to a significant increase in glutamate efflux in the VTA. Blockade of prefrontal glucocorticoid receptors with the selective antagonist CORT 108297 attenuates stress-evoked glutamate efflux in the VTA together with DA efflux in the mPFC. Furthermore, blockade of ionotrophic glutamate receptors in the VTA attenuates stress-evoked DA efflux in the mPFC. We also examine the possible role of glucocorticoid-induced synthesis and release of endocannabinoids acting presynaptically via cannabinoid CB1 receptors to inhibit GABA release onto prefrontal pyramidal cells, thus enhancing descending glutamatergic input to the VTA leading to an increase in mPFC DA efflux during stress. However, administration of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist into the mPFC does not attenuate stress-evoked DA efflux in the mPFC. Taken together, our data indicate that glucocorticoids act locally within the mPFC to modulate mesocortical DA efflux by potentiation of glutamatergic drive onto DA neurons in the VTA.

A preclinical assessment of d.l-govadine as a potential antipsychotic and cognitive enhancer.

Tetrahydroprotoberberines (THPBs) are compounds derived from traditional Chinese medicine and increasing preclinical evidence suggests efficacy in treatment of a wide range of symptoms observed in schizophrenia. A receptor-binding profile of the THPB, d.l-govadine (d.l-Gov), reveals high affinity for dopamine and noradrenaline receptors, efficacy as a D2 receptor antagonist, brain penetrance in the 10-300 ng/g range, and thus motivated an assessment of the antipsychotic and pro-cognitive properties of this compound in the rat. Increased dopamine efflux in the prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens, measured by microdialysis, is observed following subcutaneous injection of the drug. d.l-Gov inhibits both conditioned avoidance responding (CAR) and amphetamine-induced locomotion (AIL) at lower doses than clozapine (CAR ED50: d.l-Gov 0.72 vs. clozapine 7.70 mg/kg; AIL ED50: d.l-Gov 1.70 vs. clozapine 4.27 mg/kg). Catalepsy is not detectable at low biologically relevant doses, but is observed at higher doses. Consistent with previous reports, acute d-amphetamine disrupts latent inhibition (LI) while a novel finding of enhanced LI is observed in sensitized animals. Treatment with d.l-Gov prior to conditioned stimulus (CS) pre-exposure restores LI to levels observed in controls in both sensitized animals and those treated acutely with d-amphetamine. Finally, possible pro-cognitive properties of d.l-Gov are assessed with the spatial delayed win-shift task. Subcutaneous injection of 1.0 mg/kg d.l-Gov failed to affect errors at a 30-min delay, but decreased errors observed at a 12-h delay. Collectively, these data provide the first evidence that d.l-Gov may have antipsychotic properties in conjunction with pro-cognitive effects, lending further support to the hypothesis that THPBs are a class of compounds which merit serious consideration as novel treatments for schizophrenia.

Glucocorticoid receptors in the prefrontal cortex regulate stress-evoked dopamine efflux and aspects of executive function.

Enhanced dopamine efflux in the prefrontal cortex is a well-documented response to acute stress. However, the underlying mechanism(s) for this response is unknown. Using in vivo microdialysis, we demonstrate that blocking glucocorticoid receptors locally within the rat prefrontal cortex results in a reduction in stress-evoked dopamine efflux. In contrast, blocking glucocorticoid receptors in the ventral tegmental area did not affect stress-evoked dopamine efflux in the prefrontal cortex. Additionally, local administration of corticosterone into the prefrontal cortex increased prefrontal dopamine efflux. The functional impact of enhanced dopamine efflux evoked by acute stress was demonstrated using a cognitive task dependent on the prefrontal cortex and sensitive to impairment in working memory. Notably, stress-induced impairments in cognition were attenuated by blockade of glucocorticoid receptors in the prefrontal cortex. Taken together, these data demonstrate that glucocorticoids act locally within the prefrontal cortex to modulate mesocortical dopamine efflux leading to the cognitive impairments observed during acute stress.