Geriatric Assessment Scale for Optimal Management of Gastric Cancer in Older Adults Who Underwent Gastrectomy: A Systematic Review.

INTRODUCTION: Stomach cancer is one of the most common causes of cancer worldwide, especially in the population over 65 years. The survival rate of the elderly is lower in comparison with young people, and they are underrepresented in clinical trials and research in general. The evaluation of Multidimensional Geriatric Assessment (MGA) would be key for assessing the prognosis of these patients and therefore having a more informed decision-making process when considering one of the most vulnerable populations. METHODS: A search was performed in the OVID, Embase, and PubBMed databases. There was no restriction on publication time, language, or study design. Eligible studies were those that included geriatric patients with a diagnosis of nonmetastatic stomach cancer who receive oncospecific and surgical management, used Multidimensional/Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment (MGA), and which outcomes included at least overall survival, morbidity, and mortality. RESULTS: Four studies were included, and the MGA battery was not implemented, but rather easily measurable scales such as nutritional status, functional status, cognitive and behavioral disorders, comorbidities, and polypharmacy. Some authors proposed that the assessment of overall survival is not explicit among the included studies; patients with gastric cancer and mild, moderate, severe, and total dependence had higher mortality than independent patients (39% [HR 1.39; 95% CI: 1.09-1.7], 68% [95% CI: 1.46-1.93], 187% [HR 2.87 95% CI: 2.47-3.34], and 234% [95% CI: 2.81-3.97]), respectively. The Zhou study showed an association between sarcopenia, assessed by imaging studies, and a longer hospital stay in days (16 [9] vs. 13 [6], p 0.004). The study by Pujara found that polypharmacy (OR 2.36 CI: 1.08-5.17) and weight loss greater than 10% in the past 6 months were associated with greater postoperative morbidity at 90 days (OR 2.36 CI: 1.08-5.17, OR 11.21 CI: 2.16-58.24). CONCLUSION: MGA was not broadly implemented. Geriatric assessment dependency appears to be a prognostic marker of survival in patients with gastric cancer. Sarcopenia appears to be an important prognostic marker for short- and long-term outcomes. Higher quality studies in this specific population are required to support the systematic use of this assessment for the choice of appropriate therapy according to the patient.

Effect of clinical decision support for severe hypercholesterolemia on low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels.

Severe hypercholesterolemia/possible familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is relatively common but underdiagnosed and undertreated. We investigated whether implementing clinical decision support (CDS) was associated with lower low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) in patients with severe hypercholesterolemia/possible FH (LDL-C ≥ 190 mg/dL). As part of a pre-post implementation study, a CDS alert was deployed in the electronic health record (EHR) in a large health system comprising 3 main sites, 16 hospitals and 53 clinics. Data were collected for 3 months before ('silent mode') and after ('active mode') its implementation. Clinicians were only able to view the alert in the EHR during active mode. We matched individuals 1:1 in both modes, based on age, sex, and baseline lipid lowering therapy (LLT). The primary outcome was difference in LDL-C between the two groups and the secondary outcome was initiation/intensification of LLT after alert trigger. We identified 800 matched patients in each mode (mean ± SD age 56.1 ± 11.8 y vs. 55.9 ± 11.8 y; 36.0% male in both groups; mean ± SD initial LDL-C 211.3 ± 27.4 mg/dL vs. 209.8 ± 23.9 mg/dL; 11.2% on LLT at baseline in each group). LDL-C levels were 6.6 mg/dL lower (95% CI, -10.7 to -2.5; P = 0.002) in active vs. silent mode. The odds of high-intensity statin use (OR, 1.78; 95% CI, 1.41-2.23; P < 0.001) and LLT initiation/intensification (OR, 1.30, 95% CI, 1.06-1.58, P = 0.01) were higher in active vs. silent mode. Implementation of a CDS was associated with lowering of LDL-C levels in patients with severe hypercholesterolemia/possible FH, likely due to higher rates of clinician led LLT initiation/intensification.

Clinical Implementation of an AI Early Warning System Algorithm: Lessons Learned.

The Deterioration Index (DI) is an automatic early warning system that utilizes a machine learning algorithm integrated into the electronic health record and was implemented to improve risk stratification of inpatients. Our pilot implementation showed superior diagnostic accuracy than standard care. A score >60 had a specificity of 88.5% and a sensitivity of 59.8% (PPV 0.1758, NPP 0.9817). However, acceptance in the clinical workflow was divided; nurses preferred standard care, while providers found it helpful.

Decision Support System Detecting Patients at Risk of Prolonged QT and Associated Mortality.

Prolonged QT interval is an independent risk factor for all-cause mortality. However, evaluation of mortality associated to the implementation of a clinical decision support system to increase awareness and provide management recommendations has been challenging. Here we present our attempt to develop a model using only electronic data and different control groups.

Contrastive Transfer Learning for Prediction of Adverse Events in Hospitalized Patients.

OBJECTIVE: Deterioration index (DI) is a computer-generated score at a specific frequency that represents the overall condition of hospitalized patients using a variety of clinical, laboratory and physiologic data. In this paper, a contrastive transfer learning method is proposed and validated for early prediction of adverse events in hospitalized patients using DI scores. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: An unsupervised contrastive learning (CL) model with a classifier is proposed to predict adverse outcome using a single temporal variable (DI scores). The model is pretrained on an unsupervised fashion with large-scale time series data and fine-tuned with retrospective DI score data. RESULTS: The performance of this model is compared with supervised deep learning models for time series classification. Results show that unsupervised contrastive transfer learning with a classifier outperforms supervised deep learning solutions. Pretraining of the proposed CL model with large-scale time series data and fine-tuning that with DI scores can enhance prediction accuracy. CONCLUSION: A relationship exists between longitudinal DI scores of a patient and the corresponding outcome. DI scores and contrastive transfer learning can be used to predict and prevent adverse outcomes in hospitalized patients. CLINICAL IMPACT: This paper successfully developed an unsupervised contrastive transfer learning algorithm for prediction of adverse events in hospitalized patients. The proposed model can be deployed in hospitals as an early warning system for preemptive intervention in hospitalized patients, which can mitigate the likelihood of adverse outcomes.

Simplified rules-based tool to facilitate the application of up-to-date management recommendations in cardio-oncology.

BACKGROUND: Millions of cancer survivors are at risk of cardiovascular diseases, a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Tools to potentially facilitate implementation of cardiology guidelines, consensus recommendations, and scientific statements to prevent atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) and other cardiovascular diseases are limited. Thus, inadequate utilization of cardiovascular medications and imaging is widespread, including significantly lower rates of statin use among cancer survivors for whom statin therapy is indicated. METHODS: In this methodological study, we leveraged published guidelines documents to create a rules-based tool to include guidelines, expert consensus, and medical society scientific statements relevant to point of care cardiovascular disease prevention in the cardiovascular care of cancer survivors. Any overlap, redundancy, or ambiguous recommendations were identified and eliminated across all converted sources of knowledge. The integrity of the tool was assessed with use case examples and review of subsequent care suggestions. RESULTS: An initial selection of 10 guidelines, expert consensus, and medical society scientific statements was made for this study. Then 7 were kept owing to overlap and revisions in society recommendations over recent years. Extensive formulae were employed to translate the recommendations of 7 selected guidelines into rules and proposed action measures. Patient suitability and care suggestions were assessed for several use case examples. CONCLUSION: A simple rules-based application was designed to provide a potential format to deliver critical cardiovascular disease best-practice prevention recommendations at the point of care for cancer survivors. A version of this tool may potentially facilitate implementing these guidelines across clinics, payers, and health systems for preventing cardiovascular diseases in cancer survivors. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.Gov Identifier: NCT05377320.

Clinician Perspectives on Clinical Decision Support for Familial Hypercholesterolemia.

Familial Hypercholesterolemia (FH) is underdiagnosed in the United States. Clinical decision support (CDS) could increase FH detection once implemented in clinical workflows. We deployed CDS for FH at an academic medical center and sought clinician insights using an implementation survey. In November 2020, the FH CDS was deployed in the electronic health record at all Mayo Clinic sites in two formats: a best practice advisory (BPA) and an in-basket alert. Over three months, 104 clinicians participated in the survey (response rate 11.1%). Most clinicians (81%) agreed that CDS implementation was a good option for identifying FH patients; 78% recognized the importance of implementing the tool in practice, and 72% agreed it would improve early diagnosis of FH. In comparing the two alert formats, clinicians found the in-basket alert more acceptable (p = 0.036) and more feasible (p = 0.042) than the BPA. Overall, clinicians favored implementing the FH CDS in clinical practice and provided feedback that led to iterative refinement of the tool. Such a tool can potentially increase FH detection and optimize patient management.

Returning integrated genomic risk and clinical recommendations: The eMERGE study.

PURPOSE: Assessing the risk of common, complex diseases requires consideration of clinical risk factors as well as monogenic and polygenic risks, which in turn may be reflected in family history. Returning risks to individuals and providers may influence preventive care or use of prophylactic therapies for those individuals at high genetic risk. METHODS: To enable integrated genetic risk assessment, the eMERGE (electronic MEdical Records and GEnomics) network is enrolling 25,000 diverse individuals in a prospective cohort study across 10 sites. The network developed methods to return cross-ancestry polygenic risk scores, monogenic risks, family history, and clinical risk assessments via a genome-informed risk assessment (GIRA) report and will assess uptake of care recommendations after return of results. RESULTS: GIRAs include summary care recommendations for 11 conditions, education pages, and clinical laboratory reports. The return of high-risk GIRA to individuals and providers includes guidelines for care and lifestyle recommendations. Assembling the GIRA required infrastructure and workflows for ingesting and presenting content from multiple sources. Recruitment began in February 2022. CONCLUSION: Return of a novel report for communicating monogenic, polygenic, and family history-based risk factors will inform the benefits of integrated genetic risk assessment for routine health care.

Patient similarity and other artificial intelligence machine learning algorithms in clinical decision aid for shared decision-making in the Prevention of Cardiovascular Toxicity (PACT): a feasibility trial design.

BACKGROUND: The many improvements in cancer therapies have led to an increased number of survivors, which comes with a greater risk of consequent/subsequent cardiovascular disease. Identifying effective management strategies that can mitigate this risk of cardiovascular complications is vital. Therefore, developing computer-driven and personalized clinical decision aid interventions that can provide early detection of patients at risk, stratify that risk, and recommend specific cardio-oncology management guidelines and expert consensus recommendations is critically important. OBJECTIVES: To assess the feasibility, acceptability, and utility of the use of an artificial intelligence (AI)-powered clinical decision aid tool in shared decision making between the cancer survivor patient and the cardiologist regarding prevention of cardiovascular disease. DESIGN: This is a single-center, double-arm, open-label, randomized interventional feasibility study. Our cardio-oncology cohort of > 4000 individuals from our Clinical Research Data Warehouse will be queried to identify at least 200 adult cancer survivors who meet the eligibility criteria. Study participants will be randomized into either the Clinical Decision Aid Group (where patients will use the clinical decision aid in addition to current practice) or the Control Group (current practice). The primary endpoint of this study is to assess for each patient encounter whether cardiovascular medications and imaging pursued were consistent with current medical society recommendations. Additionally, the perceptions of using the clinical decision tool will be evaluated based on patient and physician feedback through surveys and focus groups. This trial will determine whether a clinical decision aid tool improves cancer survivors' medication use and imaging surveillance recommendations aligned with current medical guidelines. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.Gov Identifier: NCT05377320.

Team principles for successful interdisciplinary research teams.

Interdisciplinary research teams can be extremely beneficial when addressing difficult clinical problems. The incorporation of conceptual and methodological strategies from a variety of research disciplines and health professions yields transformative results. In this setting, the long-term goal of team science is to improve patient care, with emphasis on population health outcomes. However, team principles necessary for effective research teams are rarely taught in health professional schools. To form successful interdisciplinary research teams in cardio-oncology and beyond, guiding principles and organizational recommendations are necessary. Cardiovascular disease results in annual direct costs of $220 billion (about $680 per person in the US) and is the leading cause of death for cancer survivors, including adult survivors of childhood cancers. Optimizing cardio-oncology research in interdisciplinary research teams has the potential to aid in the investigation of strategies for saving hundreds of thousands of lives each year in the United States and mitigating the annual cost of cardiovascular disease. Despite published reports on experiences developing research teams across organizations, specialties and settings, there is no single journal article that compiles principles for cardiology or cardio-oncology research teams. In this review, recurring threads linked to working as a team, as well as optimal methods, advantages, and problems that arise when managing teams are described in the context of career development and research. The worth and hurdles of a team approach, based on practical lessons learned from establishing our multidisciplinary research team and information gleaned from relevant specialties in the development of a successful team are presented.

Novel machine learning model to improve performance of an early warning system in hospitalized patients: a retrospective multisite cross-validation study.

Background: Threshold-based early warning systems (EWS) are used to predict adverse events (Aes). Machine learning (ML) algorithms that incorporate all EWS scores prior to an event may perform better in hospitalized patients. Methods: The deterioration index (DI) is a proprietary EWS. A threshold of DI >60 is used to predict a composite AE: all-cause mortality, cardiac arrest, transfer to intensive care, and evaluation by the rapid response team in practice. The DI scores were collected for adult patients (≥18 y-o) hospitalized on medical or surgical services during 8-23-2021 to 3-31-2022 from four different Mayo Clinic sites in the United States. A novel ML model was developed and trained on a retrospective cohort of hospital encounters. DI scores were represented in a high-dimensional space using random convolution kernels to facilitate training of a classifier and the area under the receiver operator characteristics curve (AUC) was calculated. Multiple time intervals prior to an AE were analyzed. A leave-one-out cross-validation protocol was used to evaluate performance across separate clinic sites. Findings: Three different classifiers were trained on 59,617 encounter-derived DI scores in high-dimensional feature space and the AUCs were compared to two threshold models. All three tested classifiers improved the AUC over the threshold approaches from 0.56 and 0.57 to 0.76, 0.85 and 0.94. Time interval analysis of the top performing classifier showed best accuracy in the hour before an event occurred (AUC 0.91), but prediction held up even in the 12 h before an AE (AUC 0.80 at minus 12 h, 0.81 at minus 9 h, 0.85 at minus 6 h, and 0.88 at minus 3 h before an AE). Multisite cross-validation using leave-one-out approach on data from four different clinical sites showed broad generalization performance of the top performing ML model with AUC of 0.91, 0.91, 0.95, and 0.91. Interpretation: A novel ML model that incorporates all the longitudinal DI scores prior to an AE in a hospitalized patient performs better at outcome prediction than the currently used threshold model. The use of clinical data, a generalized ML technique, and successful multisite cross-validation demonstrate the feasibility of our model in clinical implementation. Funding: No funding to report.

Establishing an interdisciplinary research team for cardio-oncology artificial intelligence informatics precision and health equity.

Study objective: A multi-institutional interdisciplinary team was created to develop a research group focused on leveraging artificial intelligence and informatics for cardio-oncology patients. Cardio-oncology is an emerging medical field dedicated to prevention, screening, and management of adverse cardiovascular effects of cancer/ cancer therapies. Cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of death in cancer survivors. Cardiovascular risk in these patients is higher than in the general population. However, prediction and prevention of adverse cardiovascular events in individuals with a history of cancer/cancer treatment is challenging. Thus, establishing an interdisciplinary team to create cardiovascular risk stratification clinical decision aids for integration into electronic health records for oncology patients was considered crucial. Design/setting/participants: Core team members from the Medical College of Wisconsin (MCW), University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee (UWM), and Milwaukee School of Engineering (MSOE), and additional members from Cleveland Clinic, Mayo Clinic, and other institutions have joined forces to apply high-performance computing in cardio-oncology. Results: The team is comprised of clinicians and researchers from relevant complementary and synergistic fields relevant to this work. The team has built an epidemiological cohort of ~5000 cancer survivors that will serve as a database for interdisciplinary multi-institutional artificial intelligence projects. Conclusion: Lessons learned from establishing this team, as well as initial findings from the epidemiology cohort, are presented. Barriers have been broken down to form a multi-institutional interdisciplinary team for health informatics research in cardio-oncology. A database of cancer survivors has been created collaboratively by the team and provides initial insight into cardiovascular outcomes and comorbidities in this population.

Implementation of preemptive DNA sequence-based pharmacogenomics testing across a large academic medical center: The Mayo-Baylor RIGHT 10K Study.

PURPOSE: The Mayo-Baylor RIGHT 10K Study enabled preemptive, sequence-based pharmacogenomics (PGx)-driven drug prescribing practices in routine clinical care within a large cohort. We also generated the tools and resources necessary for clinical PGx implementation and identified challenges that need to be overcome. Furthermore, we measured the frequency of both common genetic variation for which clinical guidelines already exist and rare variation that could be detected by DNA sequencing, rather than genotyping. METHODS: Targeted oligonucleotide-capture sequencing of 77 pharmacogenes was performed using DNA from 10,077 consented Mayo Clinic Biobank volunteers. The resulting predicted drug response-related phenotypes for 13 genes, including CYP2D6 and HLA, affecting 21 drug-gene pairs, were deposited preemptively in the Mayo electronic health record. RESULTS: For the 13 pharmacogenes of interest, the genomes of 79% of participants carried clinically actionable variants in 3 or more genes, and DNA sequencing identified an average of 3.3 additional conservatively predicted deleterious variants that would not have been evident using genotyping. CONCLUSION: Implementation of preemptive rather than reactive and sequence-based rather than genotype-based PGx prescribing revealed nearly universal patient applicability and required integrated institution-wide resources to fully realize individualized drug therapy and to show more efficient use of health care resources.

Pharmacogenomics testing in patients with liver transplant and potential impact on prospective management.

Aim: Pharmacogenomics (PGx) tests are performed on whole-blood or saliva specimens. In patients with a transplanted liver, PGx results may be discordant with hepatic drug metabolizing enzyme activity. We evaluate the incidence and impact of PGx testing in liver transplant recipients, detail potential errors and describe clinical decision support (CDS) solution implemented. Materials & methods: A retrospective cohort study of liver transplant recipients at Mayo Clinic who underwent PGx testing between 1 January 1996 and 7 October 2019 were characterized. Impact of a CDS solution was evaluated. Results: There were 129 PGx tests in 117 patients. PGx testing incidence increased before (per year incidence rate ratio = 1.45, 95% CI: 1.20-1.74, p < 0.001) and after transplant (incidence rate ratio = 1.48, 95% CI: 1.27-1.72, p < 0.001). Three erroneous PGx tests were avoided 6 months following CDS implementation. Conclusion: Incidence of PGx testing in liver transplant recipients is increasing, leading to erroneous therapeutic decisions. CDS interventions and education are needed to prevent errors.

A novel method for causal structure discovery from EHR data and its application to type-2 diabetes mellitus.

Modern AI-based clinical decision support models owe their success in part to the very large number of predictors they use. Safe and robust decision support, especially for intervention planning, requires causal, not associative, relationships. Traditional methods of causal discovery, clinical trials and extracting biochemical pathways, are resource intensive and may not scale up to the number and complexity of relationships sufficient for precision treatment planning. Computational causal structure discovery (CSD) from electronic health records (EHR) data can represent a solution, however, current CSD methods fall short on EHR data. This paper presents a CSD method tailored to the EHR data. The application of the proposed methodology was demonstrated on type-2 diabetes mellitus. A large EHR dataset from Mayo Clinic was used as development cohort, and another large dataset from an independent health system, M Health Fairview, as external validation cohort. The proposed method achieved very high recall (.95) and substantially higher precision than the general-purpose methods (.84 versus .29, and .55). The causal relationships extracted from the development and external validation cohorts had a high (81%) overlap. Due to the adaptations to EHR data, the proposed method is more suitable for use in clinical decision support than the general-purpose methods.

Association of BMI, comorbidities and all-cause mortality by using a baseline mortality risk model.

OBJECTIVE: The association of body mass index (BMI) and all-cause mortality is controversial, frequently referred to as a paradox. Whether the cause is metabolic factors or statistical biases is still controversial. We assessed the association of BMI and all-cause mortality considering a wide range of comorbidities and baseline mortality risk. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of Olmsted County residents with at least one BMI measurement between 2000-2005, clinical data in the electronic health record and minimum 8 year follow-up or death within this time. The cohort was categorized based on baseline mortality risk: Low, Medium, Medium-high, High and Very-high. All-cause mortality was assessed for BMI intervals of 5 and 0.5 Kg/m2. RESULTS: Of 39,739 subjects (average age 52.6, range 18-89; 38.1% male) 11.86% died during 8-year follow-up. The 8-year all-cause mortality risk had a "U" shape with a flat nadir in all the risk groups. Extreme BMI showed higher risk (BMI <15 = 36.4%, 15 to <20 = 15.4% and ≥45 = 13.7%), while intermediate BMI categories showed a plateau between 10.6 and 12.5%. The increased risk attributed to baseline risk and comorbidities was more obvious than the risk based on BMI increase within the same risk groups. CONCLUSIONS: There is a complex association between BMI and all-cause mortality when evaluated including comorbidities and baseline mortality risk. In general, comorbidities are better predictors of mortality risk except at extreme BMIs. In patients with no or few comorbidities, BMI seems to better define mortality risk. Aggressive management of comorbidities may provide better survival outcome for patients with body mass between normal and moderate obesity.

Preferences for Updates on General Research Results: A Survey of Participants in Genomic Research from Two Institutions.

There is a need for multimodal strategies to keep research participants informed about study results. Our aim was to characterize preferences of genomic research participants from two institutions along four dimensions of general research result updates: content, timing, mechanism, and frequency. METHODS: We conducted a web-based cross-sectional survey that was administered from 25 June 2018 to 5 December 2018. RESULTS: 397 participants completed the survey, most of whom (96%) expressed a desire to receive research updates. Preferences with high endorsement included: update content (brief descriptions of major findings, descriptions of purpose and goals, and educational material); update timing (when the research is completed, when findings are reviewed, when findings are published, and when the study status changes); update mechanism (email with updates, and email newsletter); and update frequency (every three months). Hierarchical cluster analyses based on the four update preferences identified four profiles of participants with similar preference patterns. Very few participants in the largest profile were comfortable with budgeting less money for research activities so that researchers have money to set up services to send research result updates to study participants. CONCLUSION: Future studies may benefit from exploring preferences for research result updates, as we have in our study. In addition, this work provides evidence of a need for funders to incentivize researchers to communicate results to participants.

A Computational Method for Learning Disease Trajectories From Partially Observable EHR Data.

Diseases can show different courses of progression even when patients share the same risk factors. Recent studies have revealed that the use of trajectories, the order in which diseases manifest throughout life, can be predictive of the course of progression. In this study, we propose a novel computational method for learning disease trajectories from EHR data. The proposed method consists of three parts: first, we propose an algorithm for extracting trajectories from EHR data; second, three criteria for filtering trajectories; and third, a likelihood function for assessing the risk of developing a set of outcomes given a trajectory set. We applied our methods to extract a set of disease trajectories from Mayo Clinic EHR data and evaluated it internally based on log-likelihood, which can be interpreted as the trajectories' ability to explain the observed (partial) disease progressions. We then externally evaluated the trajectories on EHR data from an independent health system, M Health Fairview. The proposed algorithm extracted a comprehensive set of disease trajectories that can explain the observed outcomes substantially better than competing methods and the proposed filtering criteria selected a small subset of disease trajectories that are highly interpretable and suffered only a minimal (relative 5%) loss of the ability to explain disease progression in both the internal and external validation.

Genomic considerations for FHIR®; eMERGE implementation lessons.

Structured representation of clinical genetic results is necessary for advancing precision medicine. The Electronic Medical Records and Genomics (eMERGE) Network's Phase III program initially used a commercially developed XML message format for standardized and structured representation of genetic results for electronic health record (EHR) integration. In a desire to move towards a standard representation, the network created a new standardized format based upon Health Level Seven Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (HL7® FHIR®), to represent clinical genomics results. These new standards improve the utility of HL7® FHIR® as an international healthcare interoperability standard for management of genetic data from patients. This work advances the establishment of standards that are being designed for broad adoption in the current health information technology landscape.

Pharmacogenomics education and perceptions: is there a gap between internal medicine resident and attending physicians?

Aim: To determine if differences in self-reported pharmacogenomics knowledge, skills and perceptions exist between internal medicine residents and attending physicians. Materials & methods: Forty-six internal medicine residents and 54 attending physicians completed surveys. Thirteen participated in focus groups to explore themes emerging from the surveys. Results: Resident physicians reported a greater amount of pharmacogenomics training compared with attending physicians (48 vs 13%, p < 0.00012). No differences were found in self-reported knowledge, skills and perceptions. Conclusion: Both groups expressed pharmacogenomics was relevant to their current clinical practice; they should be able to provide information to patients and use to guide prescribing, but lacked sufficient education to be able to do so effectively. Practical approaches are needed to teach pharmacogenomics concepts and address point of care gaps.