Associations of physical activity dose and movement quality with executive functions in socioeconomically disadvantaged children aged 5-6 years.

BACKGROUND: Growing up in areas of high deprivation can negatively impact children's movement behaviours and cognitive development. Enhancing the quantity and quality of children's movement experiences is believed to enhance cognitive development. This study investigated the association of three different modes of movement assessment, movement proficiency and divergent movement ability (collectively understood as motor competence) and PA dose with executive function in a low socio-economic demographic. Demographics, motor competence, and a combination of motor competence and physical activity were hypothesized to be significantly predictor of executive functions. METHOD: In this cross-sectional study, 360 children aged 5-6 years from deprived areas were assessed using three movement assessments: wrist-worn accelerometery for physical activity dose, Test of Gross Motor Development-3 for movement proficiency, and divergent movement assessment. Executive function, including inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, was measured using the NIH Toolbox on an iPad. Multiple linear regression models were designed to evaluate the independent and combined association of demographics, movement competence and physical activity variables with executive function. RESULTS: The regression analysis, with demographic factors only, explained 12% of EF variance (r2 = 0.12 95%CI 0.06-0.18). In addition to this demographics the model with divergent movement explained 19% of EF variance (r2 = 0.19 95% CI = 0.12-0.28), the model with movement proficiency explained 16% of EF variance (r2 = 0.16 95% CI = 0.08-0.26) and the model with PA dose explained 13% of EF variance (r2 = 0.13 95% CI = 0.07-0.20). In these models both divergent movement and proficiency were significant predictors, whilst physical activity variables were not. The final models, combining motor competence and physical activity variables, explained 24% and 23% of EF variance (r2 = 0.24 CI = 0.14-0.33 and r2 = 0.23 CI = 0.14-0.32). In these models, motor competence variables were significant predictors, and only vigorous physical activity and Euclidean Norm Minus One emerged as significant PA dose predictors. DISCUSSION: These findings emphasise that motor competence and physical activity variables better predict executive functions when they are combined. When considered individually both motor competence variables were significant predictors of executive function whilst physical activity variables were not. Importantly, among the two movement competence facets, divergent movement assessment exhibited the strongest association with executive function. Future interventions should consider how to facilitate both movement and cognitive development in children. Future interventions should consider both the interplay of movement quality and quantity and the importance of environments that invite children's exploratory movement behavior.

Handwriting processes when spelling morphologically complex words in children with and without Developmental Language Disorder.

Introduction: Representations activated during handwriting production code information on morphological structure and reflect decomposition of the root and suffix. Children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) have significant difficulties in spelling morphologically complex words, but previous research has not sought evidence for a morphological decomposition effect via an examination of handwriting processes in this population. Method: Thirty-three children aged 9-10 years with DLD, 33 children matched for chronological age (CA), and 33 younger children aged 7-8 years matched for oral language ability (LA) completed a dictated spelling task (21 words; 12 with inflectional suffixes, nine with derivational suffixes). The task was completed on paper with an inking pen linked to a graphics tablet running the handwriting software Eye and Pen. Pause analyses and letter duration analyses were conducted. Results: The three groups showed similar handwriting processes, evidencing a morphological decomposition effect in a natural writing task. Pause durations observed at the root/suffix boundary were significantly longer than those occurring in the root. Letter durations were also significantly longer for the letter immediately prior to the boundary compared to the letter after it. Nevertheless, despite being commensurate to their LA matches for mean pause durations and letter durations, children with DLD were significantly poorer at spelling derivational morphemes. Handwriting processes did significantly predict spelling accuracy but to a much lesser extent compared to reading ability. Discussion: It is suggested that derivational spelling difficulties in DLD may derive more from problems with underspecified orthographic representations as opposed to handwriting processing differences.

Physical activity promoting teaching practices and children's physical activity within physical education lessons underpinned by motor learning theory (SAMPLE-PE).

PURPOSE: Movement competence is a key outcome for primary physical education (PE) curricula. As movement development in children emerges through physical activity (PA), it is important to determine the extent of PA promotion within movement competence focused teaching pedagogies. Therefore, this study aimed to assess children's moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) and related teaching practices in primary PE within Linear pedagogy and Nonlinear pedagogy and to compare this to current practice within PE delivery in primary schools. METHODS: Participants (n = 162, 53% females, 5-6y) were recruited from 9 primary schools within the SAMPLE-PE cluster randomised controlled trial. Schools were randomly-allocated to one of three conditions: Linear pedagogy, Nonlinear pedagogy, or control. Nonlinear and Linear pedagogy intervention schools received a PE curriculum delivered by trained deliverers over 15 weeks, while control schools followed usual practice. Children's MVPA was measured during 3 PE lessons (44 PE lessons in total) using an ActiGraph GT9X accelerometer worn on their non-dominant wrist. Differences between conditions for children's MVPA were analysed using multilevel model analysis. Negative binomial models were used to analyse teaching practices data. RESULTS: No differences were found between Linear pedagogy, Nonlinear pedagogy and the control group for children's MVPA levels during PE. Linear and Nonlinear interventions generally included higher percentages of MVPA promoting teaching practices (e.g., Motor Content) and lower MVPA reducing teaching practices (e.g., Management), compared to the control group. Teaching practices observed in Linear and Nonlinear interventions were in line with the respective pedagogical principles. CONCLUSIONS: Linear and Nonlinear pedagogical approaches in PE do not negatively impact MVPA compared to usual practice. Nevertheless, practitioners may need to refine these pedagogical approaches to improve MVPA alongside movement competence.

Effect of Linear and Nonlinear Pedagogy Physical Education Interventions on Children's Physical Activity: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial (SAMPLE-PE).

BACKGROUND: School-based interventions are a key opportunity to improve children's physical activity (PA); however, there is lack of evidence about how pedagogical approaches to motor learning in physical education (PE) might affect PA in children. Therefore, this study aimed to assess how different pedagogical approaches in PE might affect children's PA. METHODS: Participants (n = 360, 5-6 years) from 12 primary schools within the SAMPLE-PE randomized controlled trial were randomly allocated to either Linear Pedagogy (LP: n = 3) or Nonlinear Pedagogy (NP: n = 3) interventions, where schools received a 15-week PE intervention delivered by trained coaches, or to a control group (n = 6), where schools followed usual practice. ActiGraph GT9X accelerometers were used to assess PA metrics (moderate-to-vigorous PA, mean raw acceleration and lowest acceleration over the most active hour and half hour) over whole and segmented weeks at baseline, immediately post-intervention and 6 months follow-up. Intention to treat analysis employing multilevel modelling was used to assess intervention effects. RESULTS: LP and NP interventions did not significantly affect children's PA levels compared to the control group. CONCLUSION: PE interventions based on LP and NP alone might not be effective in improving habitual PA in children.

What kind of smoking identity following quitting would elevate smokers relapse risk?

BACKGROUND: Research has suggested that smokers who quit smoking and continue to identify themselves as a smoker versus a non-smoker are at greater risk of relapse. This study examines the relationship between post-quit smoker identities and relapse risk of former smokers in Australia and the UK comparing those who still identified as a smoker with firm choice to no longer smoke versus those not expressing a firm choice. Cross-country differences were examined. METHODS: Data analysed came from 544 former smokers (quit 1 month or more) who participated in the Australian and UK Waves 9 (2013) and 10 (2014) of the International Tobacco Control (ITC) surveys. Post-quit smoker identities were assessed at baseline and smoking relapse at follow-up. RESULTS: Baseline self-reported smoker identity independently predicted smoking relapse at 12-month follow-up (p < .01). Compared with the subgroup who identified themselves as smokers trying to quit, those who identified themselves as smokers who had chosen to no longer smoke (OR = 0.01, 95% CI = 0.01-0.25, p < .001), ex-smokers (OR = 0.05, CI = 0.01-0.25, p < .001) or non-smokers (OR = 0.07, CI = 0.02-0.37, p < .001) were less likely to relapse at follow-up. No cross-country differences were found. CONCLUSIONS: Following quitting, smokers who maintained a smoker identity with a firm choice to no longer smoke or adopted a non-smoker or ex-smoker identity were less likely to relapse than those who failed to do so, suggesting that a clear rule/commitment to not smoke and/or a shift to a non-smoking identity may be protective of relapse.

Skill Acquisition Methods Fostering Physical Literacy in Early-Physical Education (SAMPLE-PE): Rationale and Study Protocol for a Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial in 5-6-Year-Old Children From Deprived Areas of North West England.

BACKGROUND: There is a need for interdisciplinary research to better understand how pedagogical approaches in primary physical education (PE) can support the linked development of physical, cognitive and affective aspects of physical literacy and physical activity behaviors in young children living in deprived areas. The Skill Acquisition Methods fostering Physical Literacy in Early-Physical Education (SAMPLE-PE) study aims to examine the efficacy of two different pedagogies for PE, underpinned by theories of motor learning, to foster physical literacy. METHODS: SAMPLE-PE will be evaluated through a cluster-randomized controlled trial targeting 5-6 year old children from schools located in areas of high deprivation in Merseyside, North-West England. Schools will be randomly allocated to one of three conditions: Linear Pedagogy, Non-linear Pedagogy, or Control. Non-linear and Linear Pedagogy intervention primary schools will receive a PE curriculum delivered by trained coaches over 15 weeks, while control schools will follow their usual practice. Data will be collected at baseline (T0), immediately post-intervention (T1), and 6 months after the intervention has finished (T2). Children's movement competence is the primary outcome in this trial. Secondary outcomes include physical activity, perceived competence, motivation, executive functions, and self-regulation. An extensive process evaluation will also examine implementation factors such as intervention context, reach, dose, fidelity and acceptability. DISCUSSION: The SAMPLE-PE project will enable better understanding surrounding how to operationalise physical literacy through enrichment of PE practices in early PE. The study will provide robust scientific evidence regarding the efficacy of underpinning PE pedagogy with theories of motor learning to promote the development of physical literacy. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Retrospectively registered on 5th September 2018 at ClinicalTrials.gov, a resource provided by the U.S. National Library of Medicine (Identifier: NCT03551366).

Physical Education Pedagogies Built upon Theories of Movement Learning: How Can Environmental Constraints Be Manipulated to Improve Children's Executive Function and Self-Regulation Skills?

Physical education in schools has been marginalised across the globe, and as a result, children are missing out on opportunities to develop and acquire the foundation skills needed to lead a physically active life. The squeeze on physical education in schools, particularly in some western countries (United Kingdom, Australia and America), has been justified on the grounds that core subjects such as English and mathematics need more curriculum time, as this will lead to higher cognitive and academic performance. The aim of this paper is to highlight how physical education lessons in early childhood, underpinned by either of two major theories of motor learning, can support teachers in the creation of learning environments, as well as guide their pedagogical practice to facilitate children's development of key cognitive skills, in particular executive function and self-regulation skills. These skills are crucial for learning and development and have been found to be a higher predictor of academic achievement than IQ. They also enable positive behaviour and allow us to make healthy choices for ourselves and others, therefore providing further evidence that the development of movement skills has the potential to secure positive attitudes and outcomes towards physical activity across the lifespan.

Conjugated fluorenes prepared from azomethines connections--II: The effect of alternating fluorenones and fluorenes on the spectroscopic and electrochemical properties.

The photophysics and electrochemistry of fluorene and fluorenone azomethine derivatives were examined in order to understand the deactivation pathways responsible for the quenched fluorescence of these compounds, which should otherwise be fluorescent. Steady-state fluorescence showed that the fluorene singlet excited state is quenched both by fluorenone (1) and a model aliphatic azomethine compound (14) with k(q) approximately 10(10) M(-1) s(-1). The quencher concentration required to deactivate 95% of the excited singlets formed was 8.4 mM for fluorenone and 34 mM for 14. Intramolecular photoinduced electron transfer (PET) from fluorene to both 1 and 14 was found as the principle deactivation mode of the fluorene's excited state. The high degree of conjugation of the azomethines promotes intersystem crossing to the triplet manifold by narrowing the singlet-triplet energy gap, which is also in part responsible for the reduced fluorescence observed for the fluorenone azomethine derivatives 5-11. Fluorescence quenching by PET was corroborated from the electrochemical and spectroscopic data by applying the Rehm-Weller equation. Meanwhile, the inherent fluorene fluorescence can be restored by protonating the azomethine, resulting from suppressed PET. Although PET is exergonically favorable (-242 kJ/mol for 1 and -96 kJ/mol for 14), intersystem crossing still occurs. The resulting fluorene triplet state is efficiently quenched by both 1 (k(q) = 7 x 10(9) M(-1) s(-1)) and 14 (k(q) = 5 x 10(9) M(-1) s(-1)) confirming that the absence of triplet signal by laser flash photolysis is a result of rapid intramolecular energy transfer to the two quencher sites. A concentration-dependent second emission was observed for the fluorenone containing azomethines assigned to the formation of excimers.