Investigation of neonatal disorders in New World camelids and factors associated with death during and after hospitalization of affected crias.

OBJECTIVE: To assess signalment, clinical findings, and treatments for New World camelids (NWCs) hospitalized for evaluation and treatment of neonatal disorders and investigate associations between these factors and death during and after hospitalization. ANIMALS: 267 NWCs ≤ 30 days of age. PROCEDURES: Medical records of a veterinary teaching hospital were retrospectively reviewed to identify NWCs admitted for evaluation and treatment of neonatal disorders between 2000 and 2010. Signalment, physical examination data, diagnostic findings, treatments, and outcomes were recorded. Factors were examined for association with death during hospitalization and the overall hazard of death by use of multivariable logistic regression and Cox proportional hazards analysis, respectively. RESULTS: The sample comprised alpacas (n = 255) and llamas (12). Median age at admission was 3 days, and median hospitalization time was 2 days; 208 of the 267 (77.9%) neonatal NWCs survived to hospital discharge. Factors associated with increased odds of death during hospitalization included prematurity or dysmaturity, hypothermia, sepsis, toxic changes in neutrophils, and undergoing surgery. The odds of death during hospitalization also increased as anion gap increased. After discharge, 151 of 176 (85.8%) animals had follow-up information available (median follow-up time, 2,932 days); 126 (83%) were alive and 25 (17%) had died. Prematurity or dysmaturity, congenital defects, sepsis, oxygen administration, and undergoing surgery as a neonate were associated with an increased hazard of death; the hazard of death also increased as serum chloride concentration at the time of hospitalization increased. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggested the prognosis for survival during and after hospitalization is good for most NWCs hospitalized because of neonatal disorders.

Evaluation of intramuscular injection of oxytetracycline for use as an experimental model to induce pain and assess the efficacy of pain mitigation strategies in dairy cows.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate IM injection of oxytetracycline as an experimental model to induce pain and assess the analgesic efficacy of flunixin meglumine (FM) in dairy cows. ANIMALS: 15 healthy nonlactating Jersey (n = 10) and Holstein (5) cows. PROCEDURES: In the first of 2 experiments, 5 Jerseys were administered oxytetracycline (10 mg/kg, IM), divided between the right side of the neck and left hind limb. The left side of the neck and right hind limb received sham injections. Cows were also randomly assigned to receive FM (2.2 mg/kg, IV; n = 3) or an equal volume of saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (0.044 mL/kg, IV; control; 2) once daily for 5 days. The mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT) was measured before oxytetracycline administration and at predetermined times after each injection of the assigned treatment. Experiment 2 was similar to experiment 1 except it involved 5 Jerseys and 5 Holsteins, oxytetracycline was injected only in a hind limb, and the assigned treatment was administered for 10 days. RESULTS: For both experiments, mean MNT for the oxytetracycline injection site was consistently less than that for the sham injection site in the hind limbs, and mean MNT at the hind limb oxytetracycline injection site for FM-treated cows was greater than that for control cows beginning on day 3. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: IM injection of oxytetracycline in a hind limb reliably induced signs of pain in dairy cows and, with validation, might be useful as an experimental model for assessing pain mitigation strategies in cattle.

Combined tube cystostomy and urethrotomy for the treatment of urethral obstruction due to urolithiasis in goats.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the treatment of goats with urethral obstruction secondary to urolithiasis by combining tube cystostomy and urethrotomy. ANIMALS: Eight male goats. STUDY DESIGN: Short case series. METHODS: Medical records (September 2012-September 2017) of male goats treated for obstruction secondary to urolithiasis with tube cystostomy and urethrotomy were reviewed. Data collected included signalment, history, physical examination findings, diagnostic results, perioperative treatments, operative details, hospitalization duration, intraoperative and postoperative complications, urolith analysis, and time to restoration of urethral patency. Long-term follow-up (>12 months) was obtained by email or telephone interviews of owners or by clinical examination. RESULTS: Seven of eight goats were castrated males of various of breeds. All goats were tachycardic with urethral pulsation at admission. Uroliths were composed of calcium carbonate in four goats and silica in one goat. All goats regained urethral patency during hospitalization, and all were discharged alive from the hospital. Seven goats were alive at long-term follow-up. Postoperative complications included persistent urethral obstruction requiring a second urethrotomy 2 days postoperatively, premature dislodgement of the bladder catheter and jejunal obstruction secondary to adhesions, and recurrence of obstructive urolithiasis within the proximal perineal urethra requiring a second surgery 8 months later (1 each). Long-term outcome was good, with urethral patency beyond 12 months in six of eight goats. CONCLUSION: Combining tube cystostomy and urethrotomy restored urethral patency in goats with urethral obstruction from uroliths. Although none of the complications seemed directly related to the urethrotomy, formation of abdominal adhesions and recurrence of urolithiasis affected long-term outcomes. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Uroliths that do not dissolve in acidic urine may be more frequent in some practices. The combined approach of tube cystostomy and urethrotomy appears to successfully restore urethral patency with promising long-term outcomes.

Clostridial Abomasitis and Enteritis in Ruminants.

Clostridial abomasitis and enteritis are important alimentary diseases observed in all domestic ruminant species. These diseases most commonly result from overgrowth of Clostridium perfringens types A, B, C, D, and E with the associated release of bacterial exotoxins that result in necrosis of the abomasal or intestinal mucosa. Clostridium difficile may also be associated with enteritis in calves but is much less common than disease caused by C perfringens. This article reviews the causes, pathophysiology, clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of clostridial gastrointestinal diseases in ruminants. Particular emphasis is given to describing the various forms of disease and treatment of individual cases.

Temporary Rumenostomy for the Treatment of Forestomach Diseases and Enteral Nutrition.

Temporary rumenostomy is a useful procedure for the treatment, management, and support of patients with forestomach disease of various types. The rumenostomy provides a mechanism for relief of chronic rumen tympany or distention, removal of rumen contents and lavage of the rumen, removal of some rumen foreign bodies, administration of rumen fluid transfaunation, and administration of enteral nutrition or other medications. When the rumenostomy is no longer necessary, it can be allowed to close by second intention or by surgical resection.

Effects of oral powder electrolyte administration on packed cell volume, plasma chemistry parameters, and incidence of colic in horses participating in a 6-day 162-km trail ride.

This study evaluated the effects of administering oral powder electrolytes on packed cell volume (PCV), plasma chemistry parameters, and incidence of colic in horses participating on a 6-day 162-km trail ride in which water was not offered ad libitum. Twenty-three horses received grain with powder electrolytes daily while 19 control horses received grain only. Horses were ridden approximately 32 km a day at a walk or trot. Packed cell volume and plasma chemistry parameters were analyzed daily. Episodes of colic were diagnosed and treated by a veterinarian unaware of treatment group allocation. Blood parameters and incidence of colic were compared between treatment groups. Electrolyte administration did not alter PCV or plasma chemistry parameters compared to controls. The incidence of colic was significantly higher in treated horses (P = 0.05). Oral powder electrolytes did not enhance hydration status or electrolyte homeostasis and may be associated with colic in horses participating on long distance trail rides similar to this model.

Effets de l'administration d'électrolytes en poudre oraux sur le volume d'hématocrite, les paramètres chimiques du plasma et l'incidence des coliques chez des chevaux participant à une randonnée de 162 km d'une durée de 6 jours. Cette étude a évalué les effets de l'administration d'électrolytes en poudre oraux sur la valeur d'hématocrite (VH), les paramètres chimiques du plasma et l'incidence de coliques chez des chevaux participant à une randonnée de 162 km d'une durée de 6 jours où l'eau n'était pas offerte ad libitum. Vingt-trois chevaux ont reçu du grain avec des électrolytes en poudre tandis que 19 chevaux témoins ont reçu du grain seulement. Les chevaux ont transporté un cavalier pendant environ 32 km par jour au pas de marche ou au trot. La valeur d'hématocrite et les paramètres chimiques du plasma ont été analysés tous les jours. Des épisodes de coliques ont été diagnostiqués et traités par un vétérinaire qui n'était pas informé de l'allocation au groupe de traitement. Les paramètres sanguins et l'incidence de coliques ont été comparés entre les groupes de traitement. L'administration des électrolytes n'a pas modifié la VH ni les paramètres chimiques du plasma par rapport aux témoins. L'incidence de coliques était significativement supérieure chez les chevaux traités (P = 0,05). Les électrolytes en poudre oraux n'ont pas amélioré l'état d'hydratation ni l'homéostasie des électrolytes et peuvent être associés à des coliques chez les chevaux participant à des randonnées de longue distance semblables à ce modèle.(Traduit par Isabelle Vallières).

Epizootic hemorrhagic disease in a yak.

Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) infection was diagnosed in a 3-year-old yak. The yak had signs of intermittent tremors, dysphagia, oral ulcerative lesions, hemorrhagic enteritis, tachypnea, and thrombocytopenia. Postmortem diagnostics confirmed EHDV (serotype 2) using reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Gross and histopathological results were consistent with EHDV reported in other species.

Épizootie hémorragique chez un yack. Une infection par le virus de la maladie épizootique hémorragique du cerf a été diagnostiquée chez un yack âgé de 3 ans. Le yack présentait des signes de tremblements intermittents, de dysphagie, de lésions ulcératives buccales, d'entérite hémorragique, de tachypnée et de thrombocytopénie. Le diagnostic postmortem a confirmé l'épizootie hémorragique (sérotype 2) à l'aide de la technique RT-PC. Les résultats bruts et histopathologiques étaient conformes à l'épizootie hémorragique signalée chez d'autres espèces.(Traduit par Isabelle Vallières).

Evaluation of sample handling effects on serum vitamin e and cholesterol concentrations in alpacas.

Clinical cases of vitamin E deficiencies have been diagnosed in camelids and may indicate that these species are more sensitive to inadequate vitamin E in hay-based diets compared to other ruminant and equine species. In bovine, cholesterol has been reported to affect vitamin E concentrations. In order to evaluate vitamin E deficiencies in camelids, the effects of collection and storage of the blood samples prior to processing were necessary. Reports vary as to factors affecting vitamin E and cholesterol in blood samples, and diagnostic laboratories vary in instructions regarding sample handling. Blood was collected from healthy alpacas and processed under conditions including exposure to fluorescent light, serum and red blood cell contact, tube stopper contact, temperature, and hemolysis. Serum vitamin E and cholesterol concentrations were then measured. Statistical analyses found that the vitamin E concentrations decreased with prolonged contact with the tube stopper and with increasing hemolysis. Vitamin E concentration variations were seen with other factors but were not significant. Time prior to serum separation and individual animal variation was found to alter cholesterol concentrations within the sample, yet this finding was clinically unremarkable. No correlation was seen between vitamin E and cholesterol concentration, possibly due to lack of variation of cholesterol.

Infiltrative cutaneous hemangiolipoma in a goat.

An approximately 4-year-old castrated male, Saanen cross goat presented to the Colorado State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital for evaluation and removal of a 22 cm × 22 cm, dark red, thickened, and crusted cutaneous lesion along the left ventrolateral thorax. An initial incisional biopsy performed approximately 8 weeks earlier was suspicious for cutaneous hemangiosarcoma. Surgical excision was deemed to be the most appropriate treatment option for this goat. A complete physical exam, complete blood count, and chemistry profile were performed and results were within normal limits. Thoracic radiographs and abdominal ultrasound were performed to rule out metastatic disease and comorbid conditions; no metastatic lesions or other abnormalities were observed. En bloc surgical excision of the affected skin was performed and the entire tissue was submitted for histopathology. A final diagnosis of cutaneous hemangiolipoma was reached upon extensive sectioning and histologic examination of the larger tissue specimen. The goat recovered well from surgery and has had no further complications up to 9 months postoperatively. To our knowledge, this is the first case report of a hemangiolipoma in a goat and surgical excision for such lesions appears to be a viable treatment method.

Evaluation of a point-of-care glucose and ß-hydroxybutyrate meter operated in various environmental conditions in prepartum and postpartum sheep.

OBJECTIVE: To compare ß-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) and glucose concentrations measured with a dual-purpose point-of-care (POC) meter designed for use in humans and a laboratory biochemical analyzer (LBA) to determine whether the POC meter would be reliable for on-farm measurement of blood glucose and BHB concentrations in sheep in various environmental conditions and nutritional states. ANIMALS: 36 pregnant mixed-breed ewes involved in a maternal feed restriction study. PROCEDURES: Blood samples were collected from each sheep at multiple points throughout gestation and lactation to allow for tracking of gradually increasing metabolic hardship. Whole blood glucose and BHB concentrations were measured with the POC meter and compared with serum results obtained with an LBA. RESULTS: 464 samples were collected. Whole blood BHB concentrations measured with the POC meter compared well with LBA results, and error grid analysis showed the POC values were acceptable. Whole blood glucose concentrations measured with the POC meter had more variation, compared with LBA values, over the glucose ranges evaluated. Results of error grid analysis of POC-measured glucose concentrations were not acceptable, indicating errors likely to result in needless treatment with glucose or other supplemental energy sources in normoglycemic sheep. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The POC meter was user-friendly and performed well across a wide range of conditions. The meter was adequate for detection of pregnancy toxemia in sheep via whole blood BHB concentration. Results should be interpreted with caution when the POC meter is used to measure blood glucose concentrations.

Inadvertent transvaginal administration of sodium phosphate enemas in 2 alpaca crias.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical presentation and resultant metabolic disturbances following retroperitoneal administration of hyperphosphate enemas in alpaca crias. CASE OR SERIES SUMMARY: Two crias presented to the Colorado State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital after inadvertent transvaginal retroperitoneal hyperphosphate enema administration. The first cria developed an acute onset of neurologic signs, severe hypernatremia, and died soon after presentation. The second cria developed severe hyperphosphatemia, hypocalcemia, and acidemia. The metabolic derangements normalized within 24 hours of intensive treatment with calcium supplementation and IV crystalloid fluid diuresis. The cria was discharged after 1 week in the hospital. NEW OR UNIQUE INFORMATION PROVIDED: This report provides a description of electrolyte disturbances secondary to inadvertent transvaginal retroperitoneal administration of hyperphosphate enemas in 2 crias and attendant clinical signs of these disturbances. Management of hyperphosphatemia and hypocalcemia in 1 cria via aggressive fluid therapy with calcium supplementation led to a rapid and sustained normalization of phosphorus, calcium, and acid-base balance.

Alimentary-associated carcinomas in five Vietnamese potbellied pigs.

CASE DESCRIPTION: 5 Vietnamese potbellied pigs were evaluated for abdominal distress that had not responded to medical treatment (4 pigs) or a draining tract of the cranial abdomen of unknown duration (1 pig). CLINICAL FINDINGS: Clinical signs in the pigs included anorexia, vomiting, and constipation. Physical examination revealed a palpable abdominal mass in all pigs. Radiography revealed distended loops of small intestine in 2 pigs. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: 3 pigs were treated successfully with wide-margin excision of the abdominal masses, and 2 were euthanized. Primary tumors were diagnosed at necropsy or through histologic evaluation of biopsy specimens obtained during surgery. Types of tumor included cholangiocellular carcinoma, transmural gastric carcinoma, small intestinal adenocarcinoma, metastatic hepatocellular carcinoma, and carcinoma. The tumors involved the stomach, small intestine, spiral colon, liver, and gall bladder. All 3 surgically treated pigs survived at least 9 months after surgery. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Although rare, neoplasia of the alimentary system should be considered among the differential diagnoses for potbellied pigs with signs of abdominal distress. Wide-margin excision of the neoplastic tissue may result in a good outcome in affected pigs.

Prevalence of bovine viral diarrhea virus infections in alpacas in the United States.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV)-infected alpaca herds in the United States and investigate factors associated with seropositive herd status and, subsequently, determine the proportion of animals within seropositive alpaca herds that are persistently infected (PI) carriers for BVDV, obtain information regarding previous herd exposure to BVDV, determine titers of anti-BVDV antibodies of dams, and ascertain whether individual seropositive crias had received supplemental colostrum at birth. DESIGN: Prevalence study. ANIMALS: 63 alpaca herds with >or= 12 registered female alpacas. PROCEDURES: 250 alpaca breeders were randomly selected from 562 eligible herds listed in the Alpaca Owner and Breeders Association membership directory and mailed a voluntary participation request. Sixty-three alpaca breeders participated in the study. From each herd, blood samples from >or= 4 crias were tested for BVDV, BVDV RNA, and serum neutralizing antibodies against BVDV. A region of the genome of BVDV recovered from PI crias was sequenced to determine genetic homology. RESULTS: Among the 63 herds, 16 (25.4%) had seropositive crias and 4 (6.3%) had PI crias. Infections in 3 of the 4 herds with PI crias were linked as evidence by the genetic homologies of viruses. In addition to PI crias, feeding supplemental colostrum was associated with herd seropositivity. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results confirmed the importance of BVDV infections in alpacas in the United States and highlighted the importance of determining the BVDV infection status of animals before they are commingled to limit exposure of herds to BVDV infection.

Hepatic encephalopathy in two goat kids with common paternity.

Two juvenile, intact, female mixed-breed goats from a common sire were presented for periodic neurologic deficits, seizures, and a generalized loss of body condition that occurred over a 4-6-week period. On physical examination, both goats were thin, obtunded, blind, and ataxic. Laboratory diagnostics revealed increased serum bile acids (95 micromol/l; reference interval: 0-50 micromol/l) in one of the goats. Both goats exhibited progressive physical and mental deterioration, and were eventually euthanized. Upon necropsy, no significant macroscopic lesions were noted. Microscopic examination, however, demonstrated hepatocellular atrophy and anomalies in the hepatic microvasculature, including duplication of hepatic arteries, small-to-indistinct portal veins, and oval cell hyperplasia. In addition, spongiform change was microscopically identified throughout the parenchyma of the brain, most notably within the white matter and along the junction of gray and white matter. The diagnosis of congenital portal vein hypoperfusion (suggestive of a portosystemic shunt) with resultant hepatic encephalopathy was proposed in each case based on the characteristic microscopic lesions in conjunction with the signalment and history of the goats. The observation that the affected kids were sired by the same buck suggests a hereditary basis for the condition in these animals as well.

Lack of correlation between antibody titers to fibrinogen-binding protein of Streptococcus equi and persistent carriers of strangles.

Previously published studies have neither used nor reported the results of an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA) to measure serologic responses in natural outbreaks of strangles. The concept of using serologic responses to identify persistent carriers of Streptococcus equi has been proposed but not scientifically evaluated. The specific aims of the current study were to determine the duration and level of truncated fibrinogen-binding protein-specific (SeM allele 1) antibody production in ponies involved in a natural outbreak of strangles and to determine if test results from this serologic iELISA could predict persistent carrier status. Serologic samples were obtained before and after an outbreak of naturally occurring strangles infection. Persistent carriers of S. equi were identified via culture and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing of lavage fluid collected from the guttural pouches and nasopharynx or swabs of the nasopharynx after recovery from acute disease and at postmortem examination. Logistic regression analysis was used to determine if an association existed between serologic response and persistent carrier state. The ELISA reported in the current study definitively confirmed a recent exposure to S. equi. However, the measured serologic response did not predict carrier status in this strangles outbreak. Therefore, a guttural-pouch endoscopy with subsequent culture or PCR testing to detect S. equi remains the most accurate method available for the identification of persistent carriers.

Cytology in food animal practice.

Diagnostic cytology can greatly aid the clinician in determining a more refined diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment plan to serve the client and patient better. Sample collection is not difficult and can be done in the field as well as in a hospital setting. The collection and sample handling procedures described in this article can help the clinician to obtain diagnostically valuable samples. In many cases, preliminary cytologic evaluation can be performed by the general practitioner. Additional diagnostic evaluation and interpretation are readily available from trained pathologists at diagnostic laboratories.