Comparing and Predicting Rape Acknowledgment Between Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Categories.

It is well known that sexual violence is a prevalent social problem that often results in numerous deleterious outcomes for victims and these outcomes are often influenced by rape acknowledgment (i.e., whether the rape victim acknowledges their experience as rape). Most research on rape acknowledgment examines acknowledgment as a dichotomous variable and comprises heterosexual cisgender women, revealing two gaps in the literature. To fill these gaps, this study used quantitative data that oversampled LGBTQ+ populations to examine three categories of rape acknowledgment (yes, no, uncertain) among a gender and sexually diverse sample (N = 817). Results indicate that 20% of the sample were uncertain as to whether they had been raped, 33% were unacknowledged victims, and 44% acknowledged their rape. Sexual minority transgender/nonbinary people had the highest prevalence of rape acknowledgment (56%), compared with four other groupings: heterosexual cis men and women as well as sexual minority cis men and women (28%-49%). Multivariate analysis revealed that when controlling for other factors, gender identity, but not sexual orientation, significantly predicts rape acknowledgment. Namely, sexual minority transgender/nonbinary people and cis women were more likely than cis men to acknowledge their rape. This study offers evidence to suggest that acknowledgment differs significantly by gender identity and is worth further inquiry. Limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Words Can Hurt: A Taxonomy of Verbally Pressured Sexual Exploitation in the SES-V.

This article describes the development of the Verbally Pressured Sexual Exploitation module of the Sexual Experiences Survey (SES)-Victimization (introduced by Koss et al., 2024). This module assesses the use of verbal or nonphysical, paraverbal pressure to obtain sexual acts without freely given permission. An interdisciplinary team of seven sexual exploitation researchers collaborated to create this module, with consultation from the full 15 member SES-V revision collaboration team. In this paper, we describe our process for developing this module. We briefly review empirical literature and theoretical frameworks (e.g., rape scripts, normative sexual scripts, intersectionality, and sex-positivity) that informed this work. Summary tables compare the SES-V items to verbal pressure items in prior versions of the SES and to other existing measures of violence. The comprehensive taxonomy developed herein includes six domains of Verbally Pressured sexual exploitation across 11 item stems. The components of the taxonomy include: positive verbal pressure, neutral verbal pressure, negative verbal pressure, substance-related pressure, postural violence, and threats to critical resources. The paper concludes with suggestions for future research, with priority on intersectional research that can illuminate the phenomenology and contexts of sexual exploitation against marginalized groups.

The Revised Sexual Experiences Survey Victimization Version (SES-V): Conceptualization, Modifications, Items and Scoring.

The Sexual Experiences Survey [SES] is considered the gold standard measure of non-consensual sexual experiences. This article introduces a new victimization version [SES-V] developed by a multidisciplinary collaboration, the first revision since 2007. The 2024 SES-V is designed to measure the construct of sexual exploitation since the 14th birthday. Notable revisions are adoption of a freely given permission standard for non-consent, introduction of new tactics and acts, including made to perform or to penetrate another person's body, tactics-first wording order, and emphasis on gender and sexual orientation inclusivity. The SES-V is modularized to allow whole or partial administration. Modules include Non-contact, Technology-facilitated, Illegal (largely penetrative), and Verbally pressured sexual exploitation. Tables provide item text, multiple scoring approaches, module follow-up, specific incident description and demographics. Future plans include developing a scoring algorithm based on weighting our hypothesized dimensions of sexual exploitation severity: invasiveness, pressure, and norm violation combined with frequency. This article is the first in a special issue on the SES-V. Subsequent articles focus on the taxonomies and literature that informed each module. The issue concludes with two empirical papers demonstrating the feasibility and validity of the SES-V: (1) psychometric comparison with the 2007 SES-SFV; and (2) prevalence data from a census-matched adult community sample.

Descriptive Data of Transgender and Nonbinary People's Experiences of Sexual Assault: Context, Perpetrator Characteristics, and Reporting Behaviors.

Purpose: Nearly half of transgender and nonbinary (trans/NB) people will experience sexual assault in their lifetime. Beyond prevalence, little else is known about the general context in which sexual assault occurs in this community. In addition, whether and to whom trans/NB people report these experiences is also not well understood. As such, we examined these contextual factors regarding trans/NB people's sexual assault experiences. Methods: Using a cross-sectional online survey, we assessed sexual assault prevalence rates, contextual details, and reporting behaviors in a sample of 230 trans/NB adults in the United States. Data were gathered in 2016 and 2017 across two collections. Results: Eighty percent of the sample had experienced sexual assault; 62% reported experiencing completed penetrative behaviors (rape) and 37% reported repeat victimization-assault during both childhood and adulthood. Most participants indicated that their perpetrator was male (80%) and the plurality described perpetrators as dating partners (34%) or acquaintances (34%). Alcohol was involved in 26% of assaults. Approximately 8% characterized the event as a hate crime. Most trans/NB people reported their experience to a friend (64%), dating partner (50%), and/or therapist (35%). Only 6% reported their sexual assault to the police, and 20% stated that they have never told anyone. Conclusion: With the exception of substantially higher prevalence rates, many of our findings are similar to findings in the broader, typically cis-centric, sexual assault literature. We recommend that prevention and support services address both the high rates of sexual assault and the low rates of reporting to police and other support services.

Does Gender Inclusive Language Affect Psychometric Properties of the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale-Short Form? A Two-Sample Validation Study.

The Illinois-Rape Myth Acceptance-Short Form (IRMA-SF) is a widely used scale measuring people's endorsement of rape myths. However, it uses heavily gendered wording and makes gender-based assumptions that may affect its generalizability to various subgroups of people, including sexual and gender minorities who may view gender constructs outside of the heteronormative gender binary. This study validates the psychometric properties of a modified form of the IRMA-SF that is gender inclusive. Participants were adults with a range of sexual orientations and gender identities. Two sets of data were merged and then the sample was randomly split with a 20/80 weight. Data in the 20% split were used for exploratory factor analyses. Data in the 80% split were used for confirmatory factor analyses. According to the exploratory factor analysis, we found a theoretically predicted one-factor model was best (41% variance explained). Further, we found acceptable absolute model fit according to the confirmatory factor analysis (RMSEA = .07, p < .001; SRMR = .06) but unsatisfactory incremental fit (CFI = .82). These model issues were likely due to a floor-effect of low item variability which may call into question the utility of this scale in determining differences in rape myth acceptance overall. Overwhelmingly, participants in this study rejected rape myths. Researchers should explore the use of gender inclusive wording with an updated rape myth scale for use with sexual and gender minorities and, perhaps the general population, as some of these statements may be lacking in cultural relevance.

Assessing models of concurrent substance use and sexual consent cues in mainstream films.

ObjectiveCollege students may not view sexual consent communication while under the influence of substances (i.e., alcohol and drugs) as problematic if media models the co-occurrence of these behaviors. The purpose of this study was to assess the types of consent cues used by characters who are and are not under the influence of substances in mainstream films. Method: Four researchers inductively analyzed popular mainstream films (N = 50). Films were assessed for substance use and consent communication cues. Results: Characters using substances were depicted using implicit verbal and explicit nonverbal consent cues more than characters who had not used substances. Conclusion: Films may perpetuate cultural narratives that substance use can be part of the consent process and that consent is communicated differently when people have used substances. Prevention programs could include media literacy to address misleading messages college students may internalize about substance use and sexual consent communication.

Comparing Rates of Sexual Assault Between Panel Quota and Social Media Samples: Findings Across Sexual Orientation Categories.

Sexual assault is prevalent and may be even more prevalent among sexual minorities. However, prevalence rates vary, in part, due to discrepancies in sampling methods. Given this, we assessed whether two popular non-probability sampling types (panel quota vs. social media recruitment) produced different sexual assault prevalence rates when holding all other methodological choices (definitions, measures, scoring) constant in a sample of lesbian, bisexual, queer, and heterosexual adults, excluding cisgender men. Two phases of data collection occurred-a panel quota sample (n = 1366), recruited from an online sample aggregator, and social media sample (n = 1102), recruited through lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) social media sites. Participants were asked about sexual assault and rape experiences in both childhood and adulthood using a modified form of the Sexual Experiences Scale-Short Form Victimization. Both phases used the same definitions of sexual assault, prevalence measures, and prevalence scoring. Overall, the sample recruited via LGBTQ social media yielded statistically higher sexual assault prevalence rates for all four types of victimization experiences measured: lifetime sexual assault (LSA), rape-specific LSA, childhood sexual assault (CSA), and adulthood sexual assault. However, when parsing out subgroups, this finding only held for heterosexual participants who had rates > 30% higher in the social media sample compared with the panel quota sample. These findings suggest that researchers studying sexual assault in lesbian, bisexual, or queer adults may be able to use social media sampling techniques, which require less resources, without concern that the sampling technique is inflating prevalence when compared to panels.

Differences in Lesbian, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Women's Experiences of Sexual Assault and Rape in a National U.S. Sample.

Lesbian and bisexual women experience significantly higher rates of sexual assault and rape compared with heterosexual women. Despite this, researchers have yet to distinguish whether sexual orientation itself or some other related social characteristics explain these higher rates. The objective of this study was to analyze women's rates of sexual assault and rape across sexual orientation status while accounting for other social characteristics (e.g., race, education, income, outness). Women (N = 1,366), who identified as lesbian (31%), bisexual (32%), and heterosexual (31%), completed a nationally distributed, cross-sectional online survey in 2016. Victimization and repeat victimization were assessed using a modified version of Sexual Experience Survey-Short Form Victimization. Overall, 63% of bisexual, 49% of lesbian, and 35% of heterosexual women reported experiencing rape in their lifetime. When holding all other social characteristics constant, sexual orientation remained a significant predictor in the model. Compared with the odds of heterosexual women experiencing sexual assault or rape, bisexual women (3.7 odds of victimization; 7.3 odds of repeat victimization) and lesbian women (3.2 odds of repeat victimization) were disproportionately victimized. Sexual orientation clearly plays a role in sexual victimization risk, independent of other measured sociodemographic indicators. Continued research is needed to explore possible mechanisms behind sexual assault and rape prevalence, as well as the influence of contextual factors of victimization risk among sexual minority men.

Sexual Consent Communication in Best-Selling Pornography Films: A Content Analysis.

Even though young people report learning about sex from pornography, most do not think this sexual medium teaches them about sexual consent communication. But research shows that people are also able to evaluate pornography as consensual or not. Therefore, we proposed that pornography depicts subtle sexual scripts regarding sexual consent communication. We conducted a content analysis of 50 20-minute segments within best-selling pornographic films from 2015. We systematically coded the presence of various consent communication cues in these films. Consent communication was often depicted; nonverbal cues were more frequent than verbal cues. We found that the films either directly or indirectly supported several sexual scripts: Explicit Verbal Consent Isn't Natural, Women are Indirect/Men are Direct, Sex Can Happen Without Ongoing Communication, Lower-Order Behaviors Don't Need Explicit Consent, and People Receiving Sexual Behaviors Can Consent by Doing Nothing. Further research is needed to examine whether viewers are acquiring, activating, or applying these scripts. Sex education programs could benefit from acknowledging how consent communication is modeled in pornography and by teaching about pornography literacy.

Validation of the Sexual Experience Survey-Short Form Revised Using Lesbian, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Women's Narratives of Sexual Violence.

Lesbian and bisexual women have high rates of sexual violence compared to heterosexual women, yet prevalence rates vary widely across studies. The Sexual Experience Survey-Short Form Revised (SES-SFV) is the most commonly used method of measuring sexual assault and rape prevalence, but it has not been validated in this high-risk population of lesbian and bisexual women. The current study assessed a modified form of the SES-SFV utilizing a five-step, mixed-methods approach. Women (N = 1382) who identified as lesbian (31%), bisexual (32%), and heterosexual (31%) completed an online survey disseminated through Qualtrics Online Survey Company to a national audience. All types of non-consensual behaviors (non-penetrative, oral, vaginal, and anal) and nearly all perpetration tactics in the original SES-SFV emerged inductively in our qualitative data. Using quantitative data, lesbian and bisexual victims endorsed each perpetration tactic in the SES-SFV at comparable rates to heterosexual victims. SES-SFV's false-positive categorization was minimal. However, the original SES-SFV did not capture some common experiences that participants described in their open-ended narratives. The SES-SFV satisfactorily assesses sexual assault and rape experiences in lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual women. Possible additions and deletions to the SES-SFV are presented alongside discussion of managing comprehensiveness and participant fatigue.

A Content Analysis of Sexual Consent and Refusal Communication in Mainstream Films.

Young adults have limited access to comprehensive sex education. As such, they may seek sexuality information through such alternative sources, such as mass media. Previous research suggests that media, including films and television shows, can influence sexual behaviors and attitudes. Because sexual consent communication is important to sexual experiences, the purpose of this study was to assess how sexual consent and refusal communication were depicted in films. We also examined contextual factors that influence consent and refusal communication, such as gender, relationship status, location, and types of sexual behaviors. Four researchers analyzed popular mainstream films (N = 50) from 2013 based on a codebook developed inductively and deductively. The most common consent and refusal communication cues were nonverbal or implicit. The majority of scenes portrayed consent immediately before sexual activity. We also conducted chi-squared analyses to assess differences in consent and refusal communication based on gender and relationship status. There were no gender differences in the portrayal of consent cues; however, characters in established relationships used nonverbal cues more often than those in novel relationships. Mass media can normalize behaviors, and our results suggest that films may further normalize nonverbal or implicit consent cues.

Sexual Assault Supportive Attitudes: Rape Myth Acceptance and Token Resistance in Greek and Non-Greek College Students From Two University Samples in the United States.

Colleges are rape-prone cultures with high rates of sexual victimization. Fraternities' and sororities' relationships with sexual assault are consistent themes in literature focusing on sexual violence among college students. Previous research suggests that fraternity men are more likely to endorse rape-supportive attitudes compared with non-Greek men or sorority women. The present study examines rape-supportive attitudes as well as rape and sexual assault victimization in college students with a focus on gender and Greek-life (i.e., involvement in fraternities or sororities) status variables. College students ( N = 1,002) completed a survey including the Token Resistance to Sex Scale (TRSS), Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale-Short Form (IRMA-S), and items related to past experiences of nonconsensual sex. Two regression models tested predictors of token resistance and rape myth acceptance. Chi-square analyses tested between-group differences of experiencing rape and sexual assault. Gender ( p < .001), Greek status ( p < .001), and race/ethnicity ( p < .001) were predictors for TRSS scores. For IRMA scores, gender ( p < .001), Greek status ( p < .001), and race/ethnicity variables ( p < .001) were also significant. Interaction terms revealed that Greek men had higher token resistance and rape myth acceptance than any other group. Chi-square analyses indicate women more frequently report experiences of rape (χ2 = 25.57, df = 1, p < .001) and sexual assault (χ2 = 31.75, df = 1, p < .001). Men report high rates (40.8%) of experiencing sexual assault "because refusing was useless." No differences of victimization rates were found between Greeks and non-Greeks. Gender and sexual scripting theory can help explain gender differences in attitudes and experiences. Greater endorsement of rape myth acceptance and token resistance by Greeks, who influence college party culture, could be contributing to a culture conducive to rape. Findings demonstrate a continued need for interventions focused on shifting sociocultural dynamics (e.g., traditional roles and sexual scripting) on college campuses.