Prenatal choline supplementation improves child sustained attention: A 7-year follow-up of a randomized controlled feeding trial.

Numerous rodent studies demonstrate developmental programming of offspring cognition by maternal choline intake, with prenatal choline deprivation causing lasting adverse effects and supplemental choline producing lasting benefits. Few human studies have evaluated the effect of maternal choline supplementation on offspring cognition, with none following children to school age. Here, we report results from a controlled feeding study in which pregnant women were randomized to consume 480 mg choline/d (approximately the Adequate Intake [AI]) or 930 mg choline/d during the 3rd trimester. Sustained attention was assessed in the offspring at age 7 years (n = 20) using a signal detection task that showed benefits of maternal choline supplementation in a murine model. Children in the 930 mg/d group showed superior performance (vs. 480 mg/d group) on the primary endpoint (SAT score, p = .02) and a superior ability to maintain correct signal detections (hits) across the 12-min session (p = .02), indicative of improved sustained attention. This group difference in vigilance decrement varied by signal duration (p = .04). For the briefest (17 ms) signals, the 480 mg/d group showed a 22.9% decline in hits across the session compared to a 1.5% increase in hits for the 930 mg/d group (p = .04). The groups did not differ in vigilance decrement for 29 or 50 ms signals. This pattern suggests an enhanced ability to sustain perceptual amplification of a brief low-contrast visual signal by children in the 930 mg/d group. This inference of improved sustained attention by the 930 mg/d group is strengthened by the absence of group differences for false alarms, omissions, and off-task behaviors. This pattern of results indicates that maternal 3rd trimester consumption of the choline AI for pregnancy (vs. double the AI) produces offspring with a poorer ability to sustain attention-reinforcing concerns that, on average, choline consumption by pregnant women is approximately 70% of the AI.

Pre- and postnatal polychlorinated biphenyl exposure and cognitive and behavioral development at age 45 Months in a cohort of Slovak children.

Evidence of associations of pre- and postnatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) with cognitive development beyond early childhood is inconsistent. A previous report from this cohort observed adverse associations between early life PCB exposures and infant Bayley scores at age 16 months. The present study examines pre- and postnatal PCB exposures in relation to both behavior and cognitive development at age 45 months. Participants were 472 mother-child pairs residing in an area of eastern Slovakia characterized by environmental contamination with PCBs, which resulted in elevated blood serum concentrations. PCB-153 and PCB-118 concentrations were measured in maternal and in infant 6-, 16-, and 45-month serum samples. At age 45 months, children were administered five subtests of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-III), and mothers completed the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Negative binomial and multiple linear regressions were used to estimate PCB-CBCL and PCB-WPPSI-III subtest score associations, respectively. Pre- and postnatal levels of PCB-153 and PCB-118 were not associated with cognitive performance on the WPPSI-III in this cohort. There was some suggestion that higher postnatal PCB concentrations were associated with more sleep problems and feelings of depression and anxiousness.

Low linoleic acid foods with added DHA given to Malawian children with severe acute malnutrition improve cognition: a randomized, triple-blinded, controlled clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: There is concern that the PUFA composition of ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUTF) for the treatment of severe acute malnutrition (SAM) is suboptimal for neurocognitive recovery. OBJECTIVES: We tested the hypothesis that RUTF made with reduced amounts of linoleic acid, achieved using high-oleic (HO) peanuts without added DHA (HO-RUTF) or with added DHA (DHA-HO-RUTF), improves cognition when compared with standard RUTF (S-RUTF). METHODS: A triple-blind, randomized, controlled clinical feeding trial was conducted among children with uncomplicated SAM in Malawi with 3 types of RUTF: DHA-HO-RUTF, HO-RUTF, and S-RUTF. The primary outcomes, measured in a subset of subjects, were the Malawi Developmental Assessment Tool (MDAT) global z-score and a modified Willatts problem-solving assessment (PSA) intention score for 3 standardized problems, measured 6 mo and immediately after completing RUTF therapy, respectively. MDAT domain z-scores, plasma fatty acid content, anthropometry, and eye tracking were secondary outcomes. Comparisons were made between the novel PUFA RUTFs and S-RUTF. RESULTS: Among the 2565 SAM children enrolled, mean global MDAT z-scores were -0.69 ± 1.19 and -0.88 ± 1.27 for children receiving DHA-HO-RUTF and S-RUTF, respectively (difference 0.19, 95% CI: 0.01, 0.38). Children receiving DHA-HO-RUTF had higher gross motor and social domain z-scores than those receiving S-RUTF. The PSA problem 3 scores did not differ by dietary group (OR: 0.92, 95% CI: 0.67, 1.26 for DHA-HO-RUTF). After 4 wk of treatment, plasma phospholipid EPA and α-linolenic acid were greater in children consuming DHA-HO-RUTF or HO-RUTF when compared with S-RUTF (for all 4 comparisons P values < 0.001), but only plasma DHA was greater in DHA-HO-RUTF than S-RUTF (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Treatment of uncomplicated SAM with DHA-HO-RUTF resulted in an improved MDAT score, conferring a cognitive benefit 6 mo after completing diet therapy. This treatment should be explored in operational settings. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03094247.

Early life blood lead levels and asthma diagnosis at age 4-6 years.

The USA has a high burden of childhood asthma. Previous studies have observed associations between higher blood lead levels and greater hypersensitivity in children. The objective of the present study was to estimate the association between blood lead concentrations during early childhood and an asthma diagnosis between 48 and 72 months of age amongst a cohort with well-characterized blood lead concentrations. Blood lead concentrations were measured at 6, 12, 18, 24, 36, and 48 months of age in 222 children. The presence of an asthma diagnosis between 48 and 72 months was assessed using a questionnaire which asked parents or guardians whether they had been told by a physician, in the past 12 months, that their child had asthma. Crude and adjusted risk ratios (RR) of an asthma diagnosis were estimated for several parameterizations of blood lead exposure including lifetime average (6 to 48 months) and infancy average (6 to 24 months) concentrations. After adjustment for child sex, birthweight, daycare attendance, maternal race, education, parity, breastfeeding, income, and household smoking, age-specific or composite measures of blood lead were not associated with asthma diagnosis by 72 months of age in this cohort.

Airborne particulate lead and children's mental functioning.

Lead is a highly toxic metal that is pervasive in the environment in industrialised countries. There is universal agreement that at some level of exposure, lead damages the haematopoietic, renal, and neurological systems. However there is less agreement about how much lead can be tolerated without harm. The use of leaded petrol was phased out between 1976 and 1996 in the United States, and was eliminated in the European Union by 2000, but concern is growing that petrol remains an important source of exposure in many countries, especially in Africa and Asia. Motivated by this concern, the Seychelles Bureau of Standards implemented an air quality monitoring project to measure airborne lead in Victoria, the capital, beginning in January 1998. In this paper, we describe the potential dangers of human exposure to lead, focusing on the neurobehavioural effects in children. We describe some of the common and not so common sources of lead in the environment, emphasizing exposure from inhalation of airborne lead particles from automobile exhaust. The Seychelles Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme is described, including the collection and analytical methods used to measure the lead concentrations in these samples. We present the findings from this investigation and discuss their public health implications.

Latent subgroups of cognitive performance in lead- and manganese-exposed Uruguayan children: Examining behavioral signatures.

OBJECTIVES: Lead (Pb) and manganese (Mn) are confirmed neurotoxins but it is unclear to what extent low-level exposure produces a unique behavioral signature. The objective of this study was to investigate latent cognitive profiles among children (6-8 years) from Montevideo, Uruguay co-exposed to these metals. METHOD: Among 345 children, blood Pb and hair Mn were measured using atomic absorption spectroscopy and ICP-MS, respectively. Sixteen measures, reflecting multiple domains of cognitive functioning were gathered: (1) three tests from Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB): Intra-Extra Dimensional Shift (IED), Spatial Span (SSP) and Stockings of Cambridge (SOC), (2) ten tasks from Woodcock-Muñoz Achievement Battery, Revised (WM): Visual-Motor Integration, Verbal Comprehension (Vocabulary, Synonyms, Antonyms, Analogies), Visual-Auditory Comprehension, Concept Formation, Visual Spatial Thinking, Number Inversion and Spatial Relations, (3) Bender Gestalt task, and (4) Weschler block design task. Scores were modeled using latent profile analysis (LPA). Association between blood Pb and hair Mn on performance profiles was assessed using ordinal regression, controlling for confounders. An interaction between Pb and Mn was tested. RESULTS: Mean ± SD of blood Pb was 4.1 ± 2.1 µg/dL and 35% of children had blood Pb ≥ 5 µg/dL. Median [5%, 95%] hair Mn level was 0.8 [0.3, 4.1] ppb. Three latent cognitive performance profiles were identified: high (n = 46, 13%), average (n = 209, 61%) and low (n = 90, 26%). Each one-unit increase in blood Pb was associated with a 28% greater likelihood of belonging to a poorer-performing profile. The association was non-linear, with the effect of Pb on profile membership strongest at lower levels of exposure. There was no meaningful interaction between Pb and Mn. CONCLUSIONS: A behavioral signature for low-level Pb & Mn exposure was not identified, but the likelihood of membership in low-performing profile was higher at lowest levels of blood Pb. There was no effect measure modification between Pb and Mn. Future research should address how complex environments created by chemical exposures and the social context relate to cognitive performance in young children.

Maternal choline supplementation during the third trimester of pregnancy improves infant information processing speed: a randomized, double-blind, controlled feeding study.

Rodent studies demonstrate that supplementing the maternal diet with choline during pregnancy produces life-long cognitive benefits for the offspring. In contrast, the two experimental studies examining cognitive effects of maternal choline supplementation in humans produced inconsistent results, perhaps because of poor participant adherence and/or uncontrolled variation in intake of choline or other nutrients. We examined the effects of maternal choline supplementation during pregnancy on infant cognition, with intake of choline and other nutrients tightly controlled. Women entering their third trimester were randomized to consume, until delivery, either 480 mg choline/d ( n = 13) or 930 mg choline/d ( n = 13). Infant information processing speed and visuospatial memory were tested at 4, 7, 10, and 13 mo of age ( n = 24). Mean reaction time averaged across the four ages was significantly faster for infants born to mothers in the 930 ( vs. 480) mg choline/d group. This result indicates that maternal consumption of approximately twice the recommended amount of choline during the last trimester improves infant information processing speed. Furthermore, for the 480-mg choline/d group, there was a significant linear effect of exposure duration (infants exposed longer showed faster reaction times), suggesting that even modest increases in maternal choline intake during pregnancy may produce cognitive benefits for offspring.-Caudill, M. A., Strupp, B. J., Muscalu, L., Nevins, J. E. H., Canfield, R. L. Maternal choline supplementation during the third trimester of pregnancy improves infant information processing speed: a randomized, double-blind, controlled feeding study.

Effect of iron and zinc-biofortified pearl millet consumption on growth and immune competence in children aged 12-18 months in India: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial.

INTRODUCTION: Biofortified crops represent a sustainable agricultural solution for the widespread micronutrient malnutrition in India and other resource-limited settings. This study aims to investigate the effect of the consumption of foods prepared with iron- and zinc-biofortified pearl millet (FeZn-PM) by children on biomarkers of iron and zinc status, growth, and immune function. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: We will conduct a randomised controlled feeding trial in identified slums of Mumbai, India among 200 children aged between 12 and 18 months. Children will be randomised to receive foods prepared with the biofortified PM (FeZn-PM, ICTP8203-Fe) or non-biofortified PM. Anthropometric and morbidity data will be gathered every month for 9 months. Biological samples will be collected at baseline, midline and endline to assess iron and zinc status, including haemoglobin, serum ferritin, serum transferrin receptor, serum zinc, C-reactive protein and alpha-1 acid glycoprotein. Biological samples will be archived for future analyses. The midline measurement will be a random serial sample between baseline and endline. Immune function will be assessed at each time point by the measurement of T cell counts and vaccine responses in a subset, respectively. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: This study has obtained clearance from the Health Ministry Screening Committee of the Indian Council of Medical Research. Ethical clearance has been obtained from Cornell University's Institutional Review Board, the Inter System Biomedica Ethics Committee and St John's Research Institute's Institutional Ethics Review Board. The results of this study will be disseminated at several research conferences and as published articles in peer-reviewed journals. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: Clinical trial registration number NCT02233764. CTRI registration number REF/2014/10/007731.

Early developmental outcomes of children with congenital HHV-6 infection.

OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study was to determine if congenital human herpesvirus-6 (HHV-6) infection influences early neurodevelopment. METHODS: We enrolled 57 newborns with HHV-6 congenital infection and 242 control newborns without congenital infection into a prospective, double-blind study with 4 visits between 4 and 30 months of age. Assessments included the Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence, the Visual Expectation Paradigm, and the Mental Development Index (MDI) of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development II. Newborn audiology screening and follow-up audiology examinations were completed at 12 to 24 months. RESULTS: No differences were noted in baseline characteristics between infants with HHV-6 congenital infection and control infants. No clinical syndrome due to congenital infection with HHV-6 was evident at birth. No differences were identified on the Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence or the Visual Expectation Paradigm between the two groups. In 39 infants with HHV-6 congenital infection, the mean ± SD Bayley Scale of Infant Development II MDI score was 103.4 ± 8.9 at 12 months of age. The matched control infants had a mean score of 105.4 ± 12.4. After controlling for covariates, HHV-6 congenital infection was associated with lower scores on the Bayley Scale of Infant Development II MDI at 12 months of age (mean difference: 4.3 [95% confidence interval: 0.4 to 8.1]; P = .03) compared with infants without HHV-6 congenital infection. CONCLUSIONS: Congenital HHV-6 infection may have a detrimental effect on neurodevelopment at 12 months of age and requires further study given that congenital infection with HHV-6 is present in ∼1 in every 101 births.

Prenatal exposure to organophosphates, paraoxonase 1, and cognitive development in childhood.

BACKGROUND: Prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticides has been shown to negatively affect child neurobehavioral development. Paraoxonase 1 (PON1) is a key enzyme in the metabolism of organophosphates. OBJECTIVE: We examined the relationship between biomarkers of organophosphate exposure, PON1, and cognitive development at ages 12 and 24 months and 6-9 years. METHODS: The Mount Sinai Children's Environmental Health Study enrolled a multiethnic prenatal population in New York City between 1998 and 2002 (n = 404). Third-trimester maternal urine samples were collected and analyzed for organophosphate metabolites (n = 360). Prenatal maternal blood was analyzed for PON1 activity and genotype. Children returned for neurodevelopment assessments ages 12 months (n = 200), 24 months (n = 276), and 6-9 (n = 169) years of age. RESULTS: Prenatal total dialkylphosphate metabolite level was associated with a decrement in mental development at 12 months among blacks and Hispanics. These associations appeared to be enhanced among children of mothers who carried the PON1 Q192R QR/RR genotype. In later childhood, increasing prenatal total dialkyl- and dimethylphosphate metabolites were associated with decrements in perceptual reasoning in the maternal PON1 Q192R QQ genotype, which imparts slow catalytic activity for chlorpyrifos oxon, with a monotonic trend consistent with greater decrements with increasing prenatal exposure. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that prenatal exposure to organophosphates is negatively associated with cognitive development, particularly perceptual reasoning, with evidence of effects beginning at 12 months and continuing through early childhood. PON1 may be an important susceptibility factor for these deleterious effects.

Prenatal phthalate exposure is associated with childhood behavior and executive functioning.

BACKGROUND: Experimental and observational studies have reported biological consequences of phthalate exposure relevant to neurodevelopment. OBJECTIVE: Our goal was to examine the association of prenatal phthalate exposure with behavior and executive functioning at 4-9 years of age. METHODS: The Mount Sinai Children's Environmental Health Study enrolled a multiethnic prenatal population in New York City between 1998 and 2002 (n = 404). Third-trimester maternal urines were collected and analyzed for phthalate metabolites. Children (n = 188, n = 365 visits) were assessed for cognitive and behavioral development between the ages of 4 and 9 years. RESULTS: In multivariate adjusted models, increased loge concentrations of low molecular weight (LMW) phthalate metabolites were associated with poorer scores on the aggression [beta = 1.24; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.15- 2.34], conduct problems (beta = 2.40; 95% CI, 1.34-3.46), attention problems (beta = 1.29; 95% CI, 0.16- 2.41), and depression (beta = 1.18; 95% CI, 0.11-2.24) clinical scales; and externalizing problems (beta = 1.75; 95% CI, 0.61-2.88) and behavioral symptom index (beta = 1.55; 95% CI, 0.39-2.71) composite scales. Increased loge concentrations of LMW phthalates were also associated with poorer scores on the global executive composite index (beta = 1.23; 95% CI, 0.09-2.36) and the emotional control scale (beta = 1.33; 95% CI, 0.18- 2.49). CONCLUSION: Behavioral domains adversely associated with prenatal exposure to LMW phthalates in our study are commonly found to be affected in children clinically diagnosed with conduct or attention deficit hyperactivity disorders.

Neurodevelopmental effects of maternal nutritional status and exposure to methylmercury from eating fish during pregnancy.

Fish contain nutrients that promote optimal brain growth and development but also contain methylmercury (MeHg) that can have toxic effects. The present study tested the hypothesis that the intake of selected nutrients in fish or measures of maternal nutritional status may represent important confounders when estimating the effects of prenatal methylmercury exposure on child development. The study took place in the Republic of Seychelles, an Indian Ocean archipelago where fish consumption is high. A longitudinal cohort study design was used. A total of 300 mothers were enrolled early in pregnancy. Nutrients considered to be important for brain development were measured during pregnancy along with prenatal MeHg exposure. The children were evaluated periodically to age 30 months. There were 229 children with complete outcome and covariate data for analysis. The primary endpoint was the Bayley Scales of Infant Development-II (BSID-II), administered at 9 and 30 months of age. Combinations of four secondary measures of infant cognition and memory were also given at 5, 9 and 25 months. Cohort mothers consumed an average of 537 g of fish (nine meals containing fish) per week. The average prenatal MeHg exposure was 5.9 ppm in maternal hair. The primary analysis examined the associations between MeHg, maternal nutritional measures and children's scores on the BSID-II and showed an adverse association between MeHg and the mean Psychomotor Developmental Index (PDI) score at 30 months. Secondary analyses of the association between the PDI and only MeHg alone or nutritional factors alone showed only a borderline significant association between MeHg and the PDI at 30 months and no associations with nutritional factors. One experimental measure at 5 months of age was positively associated with iodine status, but not prenatal MeHg exposure. These findings suggest a possible confounding role of maternal nutrition in studies examining associations between prenatal MeHg exposures and developmental outcomes in children.

Associations of maternal long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, methyl mercury, and infant development in the Seychelles Child Development Nutrition Study.

Fish consumption during gestation can provide the fetus with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) and other nutrients essential for growth and development of the brain. However, fish consumption also exposes the fetus to the neurotoxicant, methyl mercury (MeHg). We studied the association between these fetal exposures and early child development in the Seychelles Child Development Nutrition Study (SCDNS). Specifically, we examined a priori models of Omega-3 and Omega-6 LCPUFA measures in maternal serum to test the hypothesis that these LCPUFA families before or after adjusting for prenatal MeHg exposure would reveal associations with child development assessed by the BSID-II at ages 9 and 30 months. There were 229 children with complete outcome and covariate data available for analysis. At 9 months, the PDI was positively associated with total Omega-3 LCPUFA and negatively associated with the ratio of Omega-6/Omega-3 LCPUFA. These associations were stronger in models adjusted for prenatal MeHg exposure. Secondary models suggested that the MeHg effect at 9 months varied by the ratio of Omega-6/Omega-3 LCPUFA. There were no significant associations between LCPUFA measures and the PDI at 30 months. There were significant adverse associations, however, between prenatal MeHg and the 30-month PDI when the LCPUFA measures were included in the regression analysis. The BSID-II mental developmental index (MDI) was not associated with any exposure variable. These data support the potential importance to child development of prenatal availability of Omega-3 LCPUFA present in fish and of LCPUFA in the overall diet. Furthermore, they indicate that the beneficial effects of LCPUFA can obscure the determination of adverse effects of prenatal MeHg exposure in longitudinal observational studies.

The conundrum of unmeasured confounding: Comment on: "Can some of the detrimental neurodevelopmental effects attributed to lead be due to pesticides? by Brian Gulson".

The problem described by Dr. Brian Gulson - confounding by unmeasured exposures to pesticides - is only the most recent in a series of potential confounders cited to explain the observed effect of lead on children's intellectual abilities or behavioral problems. Despite the persistent problem of unmeasured confounders, there are several lines of evidence implicating lead as a toxicant at blood lead levels <10 microg/dL. First, in striking contrast with pesticides, there is considerable evidence from numerous studies linking low-level lead exposure with cognitive deficits and behavioral problems, even after controlling for a variety of potential confounders. Second, the consistency of evidence from diverse cohorts and distinct, if not always directly measured potential confounders - enhances our confidence that the lead effect observed at blood lead levels <10 microg/dL is not attributable to unmeasured confounders. Third, in our reanalysis of the Rochester Lead Study, the inclusion of parent-reported mouthing behaviors and breastfeeding status did not attenuate the effect of lead exposure on children's intellectual function. Finally, although we can never entirely dismiss unmeasured confounding in observational studies, we can rely on experimental studies of lead-exposed animals to confirm that lead is a toxicant. Thus, while we must remain vigilant for unmeasured or poorly measured confounders, it is crucial to balance the endless search for confounders with the evidence of toxicity and the need to take action to protect public health. The alternative, to perpetually permit children to be exposed to lead and other emerging toxicants, is both absurd and unacceptable.

Blood lead concentrations < 10 microg/dL and child intelligence at 6 years of age.

BACKGROUND: Few studies provide data directly relevant to the question of whether blood lead concentrations < 10 microg/dL adversely affect children's cognitive function. OBJECTIVE: We examined the association between blood lead concentrations assessed throughout early childhood and children's IQ at 6 years of age. METHODS: Children were followed from 6 months to 6 years of age, with determination of blood lead concentrations at 6, 12, 18, and 24 months, and 3, 4, 5, and 6 years of age. At 6 years of age, intelligence was assessed in 194 children using the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised. We used general linear and semiparametic models to estimate and test the association between blood lead concentration and IQ. RESULTS: After adjustment for maternal IQ, HOME scale scores, and other potential confounding factors, lifetime average blood lead concentration (mean = 7.2 microg/dL; median = 6.2 microg/dL) was inversely associated with Full-Scale IQ (p = 0.006) and Performance IQ scores (p = 0.002). Compared with children who had lifetime average blood lead concentrations < 5 microg/dL, children with lifetime average concentrations between 5 and 9.9 microg/dL scored 4.9 points lower on Full-Scale IQ (91.3 vs. 86.4, p = 0.03). Nonlinear modeling of the peak blood lead concentration revealed an inverse association (p = 0.003) between peak blood lead levels and Full-Scale IQ down to 2.1 microg/dL, the lowest observed peak blood lead concentration in our study. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence from this cohort indicates that children's intellectual functioning at 6 years of age is impaired by blood lead concentrations well below 10 microg/dL, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention definition of an elevated blood lead level.

The effect of maternal PTSD following in utero trauma exposure on behavior and temperament in the 9-month-old infant.

UNLABELLED: In view of evidence of in utero glucocorticoid programming, and our prior observation of lower cortisol levels in 9-month-old infants of mothers with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) compared to mothers without PTSD, we undertook an examination of the effect of in utero maternal stress, as determined by PTSD symptom severity, and maternal cortisol levels on behavioral outcomes in the infant. METHODS: Ninety-eight pregnant women directly exposed to the World Trade Center (WTC) collapse on 9/11 provided salivary cortisol samples and completed a PTSD symptom questionnaire and a behavior rating scale to measure infant temperament, including distress to limitations, and response to novelty. RESULTS: Mothers who developed PTSD in response to 9/11 had lower morning and evening salivary cortisol levels, compared to mothers who did not develop PTSD. Maternal morning cortisol levels were inversely related to their rating of infant distress and response to novelty (i.e., loud noises, new foods, unfamiliar people). Also, mothers who had PTSD rated their infants as having greater distress to novelty than did mothers without PTSD (t = 2.77, df = 61, P = 0.007). CONCLUSION: Longitudinal studies are needed to determine how the association between maternal PTSD symptoms and cortisol levels and infant temperament reflect genetic and/or epigenetic mechanisms of intergenerational transmission.

Deficits in cognitive function and achievement in Mexican first-graders with low blood lead concentrations.

Elevated blood lead levels in children are associated with lower scores on tests of cognitive functioning. Recent studies have reported inverse relations between lifetime exposure and intellectual functioning at blood lead concentrations below 10 microg/dL, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) level of concern. We report associations between blood lead and cognitive performance for first-grade Mexican children living near a metal foundry. Using a cross-sectional design, we examined the relation between children's concurrent blood lead concentrations (mean (SD) 11.4 microg/dL (6.1)) and their performance on 14 tests of global or specific cognitive functions. The blood lead-cognition relations were modeled using both linear and nonlinear methods. After adjustment for covariates, a higher blood lead level was associated with poorer cognitive performance on several cognitive tests. Segmented linear regressions revealed significant effects of lead but only for the segments defined by a concurrent blood lead concentration below 10-14 microg/dL. One implication of these findings is that at the age of 7 years, even in the absence of information on lead exposure in infancy and early childhood, a test result with blood lead < 10 microg/dL should not be considered safe. Together with other recent findings, these results add to the empirical base of support available for evaluating the adequacy of current screening guidelines and for motivating efforts at primary prevention of childhood lead exposure.

Principles and practices of neurodevelopmental assessment in children: lessons learned from the Centers for Children's Environmental Health and Disease Prevention Research.

Principles and practices of pediatric neurotoxicology are reviewed here with the purpose of guiding the design and execution of the planned National Children's Study. The developing human central nervous system is the target organ most vulnerable to environmental chemicals. An investigation of the effects of environmental exposures on child development is a complex endeavor that requires consideration of numerous critical factors pertinent to a study's concept, design, and execution. These include the timing of neurodevelopmental assessment, matters of biologic plausibility, site, child and population factors, data quality assurance and control, the selection of appropriate domains and measures of neurobehavior, and data safety and monitoring. Here we summarize instruments for the assessment of the neonate, infant, and child that are being employed in the Centers for Children's Environmental Health and Disease Prevention Research, sponsored by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, discuss neural and neurobiologic measures of development, and consider the promises of gene-environment studies. The vulnerability of the human central nervous system to environmental chemicals has been well established, but the contribution these exposures may make to problems such as attention deficit disorder, conduct problems, pervasive developmental disorder, or autism spectrum disorder remain uncertain. Large-scale studies such as the National Children's Study may provide some important clues. The human neurodevelopmental phenotype will be most clearly represented in models that include environmental chemical exposures, the social milieu, and complex human genetic characteristics that we are just beginning to understand.