Evaluation of the effect of live LaSota Newcastle disease virus vaccine as primary immunization on immune development in broilers.

Newcastle disease remains a major concern to the poultry industry; however, it can be managed with effective vaccination programs. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of 2 1× doses of live LaSota strain Newcastle disease virus (NDV) vaccine administered oculo-nasally on d one and 21 on development of humoral and cell-mediated immune response in broilers, and to compare different immunization schedules. Two experiments were conducted. In Experiment I (n = 320), Ross 308 birds were randomly assigned to an unvaccinated control group or vaccinated treatment. [Both treatments consisted of 4 pens per treatment and 40 birds per pen]. At d one, live NDV LaSota strain vaccine was used as a primary immunization to evaluate its impact on adaptive immunity. No substantial NDV-specific humoral immune response was established. Body weights were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the vaccinated birds on d 4 and 7. Spleen index of the vaccinated birds was significantly (P < 0.05) lower at d 28 and 35. Flow cytometry showed reduced levels of peripheral and splenic B and T lymphocytes. Interferon gamma secreted by splenocytes and in circulation was measured; the results showed a reduced expression post-secondary immunization. In Experiment II (n = 180), the role of maternal antibodies and primary vaccination at d one was evaluated using 3 vaccination protocols. Protocol 1 used live B1 strain as primary immunization, whereas protocol 2 used live LaSota strain. Protocol 3 used live LaSota strain after maternal antibodies had decayed. Protocol 3 resulted in the highest NDV-titer level during the trial. Protocol 2 had the lowest NDV titer. Feed conversion was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in protocol 3 compared to 1 and 2. Overall, the results indicate that the use of live LaSota strain NDV vaccine as primary immunization at d one has a detrimental effect on the development of adaptive immunity in broilers; however, its use after the level of maternal antibodies decays results in a robust antigen-specific humoral immune response.

Temperature sequence of eggs from oviposition through distribution: production--part 1.

During Egg Safety Action Plan hearings in Washington, DC, many questions were raised concerning the egg temperature (T) used in the risk assessment model. Therefore, a national study was initiated to determine the T of eggs from oviposition through distribution. In part 1; researchers gathered data on internal and surface egg T from commercial egg production facilities. An infrared thermometer was used to rapidly measure surface T, and internal T was determined by probing individual eggs. The main effects were geographic region (state) and season evaluated in a factorial design. Egg T data were recorded in the production facilities in standardized comparisons. Regression analysis (P < 0.0001) showed that the R(2) (0.952) between infrared egg surface T and internal T was very high, and validated further use of the infrared thermometer. Hen house egg surface and internal T were significantly influenced by state, season, and the state x season interaction. Mean hen house egg surface T was 27.3 and 23.8 degrees C for summer and winter, respectively, with 29.2 and 26.2 degrees C for egg internal T (P < 0.0001). Hen house eggs from California had the lowest surface and internal T in winter among all the states (P < 0.0001), whereas the highest egg surface T were recorded during summer in North Carolina, Georgia, and Texas, and the highest internal T were recorded from Texas and Georgia. Cooling of warm eggs following oviposition was significantly influenced by season, state, and their interaction. Egg internal T when 3/4 cool was higher in summer vs. winter and higher in North Carolina and Pennsylvania compared with Iowa. The time required to 3/4 cool eggs was greater in winter than summer and greater in Iowa than in other states. These findings showed seasonal and state impacts on ambient T in the hen house that ultimately influenced egg surface and internal T. More important, they showed opportunities to influence cooling rate to improve internal and microbial egg quality.

Temperature sequence of eggs from oviposition through distribution: processing--part 2.

The Egg Safety Action Plan released in 1999 raised questions concerning egg temperature used in the risk assessment model. Therefore, a national study was initiated to determine the internal and external temperature sequence of eggs from oviposition through distribution. Researchers gathered data from commercial egg production, shell egg processing, and distribution facilities. The experimental design was a mixed model with 2 random effects for season and geographic region and a fixed effect for operation type (inline or offline). For this report, internal and external egg temperature data were recorded at specific points during shell egg processing in the winter and summer months. In addition, internal egg temperatures were recorded in pre- and postshell egg processing cooler areas. There was a significant season x geographic region interaction (P < 0.05) for both surface and internal temperatures. Egg temperatures were lower in the winter vs. summer, but eggs gained in temperature from the accumulator to the postshell egg processing cooler. During shell egg processing, summer egg surface and internal temperatures were greater (P < 0.05) than during the winter. When examining the effect of shell egg processing time and conditions, it was found that 2.4 and 3.8 degrees C were added to egg surface temperatures, and 3.3 and 6.0 degrees C were added to internal temperatures in the summer and winter, respectively. Internal egg temperatures were higher (P < 0.05) in the preshell egg processing cooler area during the summer vs. winter, and internal egg temperatures were higher (P < 0.05) in the summer when eggs were (3/4) cool (temperature change required to meet USDA-Agricultural Marketing Service storage regulation of 7.2 degrees C) in the postshell egg processing area. However, the cooling rate was not different (P > 0.05) for eggs in the postshell egg processing cooler area in the summer vs. winter. Therefore, these data suggest that season of year and geographic location can affect the temperature of eggs during shell egg processing and should be a component in future assessments of egg safety.

Temperature sequence of eggs from oviposition through distribution: transportation--part 3.

The Egg Safety Action Plan released in 1999 raised many questions concerning egg temperature used in the risk assessment model. Therefore, a national study by researchers in California, Connecticut, Georgia, Iowa, Illinois, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Texas was initiated to determine the internal and external temperature sequence of eggs from oviposition through distribution. Researchers gathered data from commercial egg production, processing, and distribution facilities. The experimental design was a mixed model with random effects for season and a fixed effect for duration of the transport period (long or short haul). It was determined that processors used refrigerated transport trucks (REFER) as short-term storage (STS) in both the winter and summer. Therefore, this summary of data obtained from REFER also examines the impact of their use as STS. Egg temperature data were recorded for specific loads of eggs during transport to point of resale or distribution to retailers. To standardize data comparisons between loads, they were segregated between long and short hauls. The summer egg temperatures were higher in the STS and during delivery. Egg temperature was not significantly reduced during the STS phase. Egg temperature decreases were less (P < 0.0001) during short delivery hauls 0.6 degrees C than during long hauls 7.8 degrees C. There was a significant season x delivery interaction (P < 0.05) for the change in the temperature differences between the egg and ambient temperature indicated as the cooling potential. This indicated that the ambient temperature during long winter deliveries had the potential to increase egg temperature. The REFER used as STS did not appreciably reduce internal egg temperature. These data suggest that the season of year affects the temperature of eggs during transport. Eggs are appreciably cooled on the truck, during the delivery phase, which was contrary to the original supposition that egg temperatures would remain static during refrigerated transport. These data indicate that refrigerated transport should be a component in future assessments of egg safety.

Guar meal diets as an alternative approach to inducing molt and improving Salmonella enteritidis resistance in late-phase laying hens.

Induced molting of laying hens is a practice used by commercial egg producers to increase the productive lifetime of their flock. However, the conventional method of inducing molt, which involves removal of feed, water, or both as well as a reduction in photoperiod to less than a natural day has drawn criticism due to animal welfare and food safety concerns. The objective of this study was to explore the efficacy of diets containing high levels of guar meal (GM) in inducing molt and reducing susceptibility to Salmonella Enteritidis colonization in late-phase laying hens. Late-phase (68 wk old) Lohmann laying hens were either full-fed standard laying hen diets (nonmolted control), induced to molt by feed withdrawal, or full-fed standard laying hen diets containing 20% GM with or without 250 units/kg of mannanase Hemicell supplementation. On the fourth day of treatment, all hens were orally challenged with SE (1.65 x 10(7) cfu). Hens were killed and evaluated for Salmonella colonization and differences in organ weights 5 d postinoculation. Salmonella Enteritidis present in crop, liver, ovary, and cecal contents were significantly reduced by feeding GM with enzyme supplementation compared with feed withdrawal hens. No significant differences were observed in reproductive tract weights of molted groups, although a difference in liver weight was detected. Results indicate that feeding diets containing 20% GM are as effective as complete feed withdrawal with respect to inducing molt with the added benefit of improved resistance to Salmonella Enteritidis colonization and translocation.

Use of guar by-products in high-production laying hen diets.

A 5x5 Latin square experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of feeding low concentrations of guar germ or a combination of guar germ and hull (guar meal) in high-production laying hen diets. A total of 125 Lohmann laying hens (21 wk old) of similar BW were randomly assigned to 5 blocks. Each block was divided into 5 experimental units, consisting of 5 hens per unit. Hens were fed either a nonguar control diet, or 1 of 4 diets containing either 2.5 or 5% guar germ, or 2.5 or 5% guar meal over a 20-wk trial period (five 4-wk periods). No significant differences were observed when feeding either 2.5 or 5% guar germ or meal (P>0.05) on hen-day egg production or feed consumption. Significant differences in egg weight, total egg mass per hen, and feed conversion ratio were detected in hens fed 2.5% guar meal, whereas they remained unchanged for diets containing either level of guar germ or 5% guar meal. Feeding either level of guar germ or guar meal did not affect shell quality (shell thickness, egg breaking force, and specific gravity), Haugh units, or egg yolk color (L*, a*, b*). The results showed that both guar germ and guar meal can be fed to high-production laying hens at up to 5% without adverse effects on laying hen performance.

Nitrogen emissions from broilers measured by mass balance over eighteen consecutive flocks.

Emission of nitrogen in the form of ammonia from poultry rearing facilities has been an important topic for the poultry industry because of concerns regarding the effects of ammonia on the environment. Sound scientific data is needed to accurately estimate air emissions from poultry operations. Many factors, such as season of the year, ambient temperature and humidity, bird health, and management practices can influence ammonia volatilization from broiler rearing facilities. Precise results are often difficult to attain from commercial facilities, particularly over long periods of time. Therefore, an experiment was conducted to determine nitrogen loss from broilers in a research facility under conditions simulating commercial production for 18 consecutive flocks. Broilers were reared to 40 to 42 d of age and fed diets obtained from a commercial broiler integrator. New rice hulls were used for litter for the first flock, and the same litter was recycled for all subsequent flocks with caked litter removed between flocks. All birds, feeds, and litter materials entering and leaving the facility were quantified, sampled, and analyzed for total nitrogen content. Nitrogen loss was calculated by the mass balance method in which loss was equal to the difference between the nitrogen inputs and the nitrogen outputs. Nitrogen partitioning as a percentage of inputs averaged 15.29, 6.84, 55.52, 1.27, and 21.08% for litter, caked litter, broiler carcasses, mortalities, and nitrogen loss, respectively, over all eighteen flocks. During the production of 18 flocks of broilers on the same recycled litter, the average nitrogen emission rate was calculated to range from 4.13 to 19.74 g of N/ kg of marketed broiler (grams of nitrogen per kilogram) and averaged 11.07 g of N/kg. Nitrogen loss was significantly (P < 0.05) greater for flocks reared in summer vs. winter. Results of this experiment have demonstrated that the rate of nitrogen volatilization from broiler grow-out facilities varies significantly on a flock-to-flock basis.

Effects of top-dressing recycled broiler litter on litter production, litter characteristics, and nitrogen mass balance.

Top-dressing is a method of broiler litter management in which a thin layer of new, clean litter material is spread over the top of previously used litter prior to placement of a new flock. This fresh layer of bedding material increases the absorptive capacity of the litter and decreases litter caking. Although this practice has been widely used in the poultry industry for many years, no research has been conducted to quantify the effects the practice has on broiler performance, litter production rates, and nutrient content, or the ability of broiler litter to retain manure N and prevent volatilization. An experiment was conducted to quantify these parameters under simulated commercial conditions in a research facility. Nine consecutive flocks of broilers were reared on recycled broiler litter that had previously been used for 9 flocks. Control pens received no litter treatment whereas top-dressed pens received a thin layer of new rice hulls (1 to 2 cm) before the placement of each flock. Nitrogen loss was calculated using the mass balance method. Average broiler performance was not different between the top-dressed and control pens. Top-dressing of litter significantly (P < 0.05) reduced caked litter production compared with control pens in 6 of 9 flocks. However, average total litter production over all 9 flocks was not different between the 2 litter management strategies. In all flocks, litter N content was significantly reduced in top-dressed pens compared with control pens. As a result, litter C:N ratios were significantly higher for pens with top-dressed litter. Differences in N loss between the treatments were not consistent. Average N loss for all flocks was 10.61 and 11.92 g of N/kg of marketed broiler for control and top-dressed pens, respectively, or 20.1 and 22.5% of N inputs, respectively. Based on this experiment, top-dressing of recycled broiler litter would not be recommended as a strategy to reduce the volatilization of N from broiler rearing facilities and, in fact, may actually increase N loss.

Measurement of broiler litter production rates and nutrient content using recycled litter.

It is important for broiler producers to know litter production rates and litter nutrient content when developing nutrient management plans. Estimation of broiler litter production varies widely in the literature due to factors such as geographical region, type of housing, size of broiler produced, and number of flocks reared on the same litter. Published data for N, P, and K content are also highly variable. In addition, few data are available regarding the rate of production, characteristics, and nutrient content of caked litter (cake). In this study, 18 consecutive flocks of broilers were reared on the same litter in experimental pens under simulated commercial conditions. The mass of litter and cake produced was measured after each flock. Samples of all litter materials were analyzed for pH, moisture, N, P, and K. Average litter and cake moisture content were 26.4 and 46.9%, respectively. Significant variation in litter and cake nutrient content was observed and can largely be attributed to ambient temperature differences. Average litter, cake, and total litter (litter plus cake) production rates were 153.3, 74.8, and 228.2 g of dry litter material per kg of live broiler weight (g/kg) per flock, respectively. Significant variation in litter production rates among flocks was also observed. Cumulative litter, cake, and total litter production rates after 18 flocks were 170.3, 78.7, and 249.0 g/kg, respectively. The data produced from this research can be used by broiler producers to estimate broiler litter and cake production and the nutrient content of these materials.

Resazurin assay of radiation response in cultured cells.

We describe use of resazurin reduction for measurement of cell response to irradiation as a simple and non-destructive assay that complements the conventional colony forming assay and can readily be applied to both adherent and non-adherent cell cultures. The resazurin method yields data comparable with the colony forming assay as well as to assay of DNA synthesis (BrdU incorporation), giving an OER (oxygen enhancement ratio) of 2.5 at 60% isoeffect level versus 3.1 for the colony forming assay. Intraday and interday precisions for the resazurin assay were 4.1% and 5.2%, respectively.

Impact of dietary supplemental methionine sources on sensory measurement of odor-related compounds in broiler excreta.

An experiment was conducted to detect differences in odor characteristics of broiler excreta due to utilization of different supplementary Met sources by a trained human descriptive aroma attribute sensory panel. The 5 treatment groups were no supplemental Met (control group), sodium methioninate aqueous solution, dry Met hydroxy analogue, liquid Met hydroxy analogue, and DL-Met. Two trials were conducted consisting of 5 treatment groups with 3 replications of 13 randomly distributed straight run broiler chicks per pen reared in battery cages. Starter and grower diets were formulated to contain 0.5 and 0.38% Met activity, respectively (except control group, 0.35% Met activity). Excreta were collected for 24 h in litter pans lined with aluminum foil at wk 4, 5, and 6 and analyzed by a trained sensory panel (7 people). Each panelist was given 25 g of manure heated at 27 degrees C for 5 min for sensory analysis. The 13 odor attributes used to determine differences in broiler excreta by the trained sensory panel were ammonia, dirty socks, wet poultry, fermented rotten fruit, hay, musty wet, sharp, sour, urinous, rotten eggs, irritating, pungent, and nauseating. Panelist marked intensities for each attribute ranging from 0 = none and 15 = extremely intense. Each panelist was given 2 replications of each treatment group in a random order each week (total of 10 samples per wk). All data were evaluated by ANOVA using the general linear model procedure of SAS software. No significant differences were observed in BW, feed consumption, or feed conversion among the treatments. The attributes of ammonia, wet poultry, rotten fruit, musty wet, sharp, and pungent differed (P < 0.05) across treatment groups. These findings demonstrate that supplemental Met sources significantly influence odor production in broiler excreta.

The impact of supplemental dietary methionine sources on volatile compound concentrations in broiler excreta.

The impact of different Met sources on broiler fecal odor volatiles was determined by evaluating the types of sulfur compounds produced in broiler excreta. Two experiments were conducted using straight-run broiler chicks randomly distributed in battery cages, with 3 replicate pens of 16 birds each. The treatment groups were 1) dry Met hydroxy analogue (dry MetHA), 2) sodium methioninate aqueous solution (NaMet), 3) liquid Met hydroxy analogue (Liq MetHA), 4) D,L- Met, and 5) no supplemental Met (control group). The Met activities of each Met source were 52, 45.9, 88, and 98%, respectively. All diets were formulated to contain either 0.8% (experiment 1) total Met activity or 0.5% Met activity in the starter and 0.38% Met activity in the grower (experiment 2) (except the control group, 0.35% Met activity), but otherwise met NRC nutrient requirements (NRC, 1994). Diets were fed ad libitum from d 1 to 6 wk of age. There were no significant differences in BW among the treatments. All excreta were collected in litter pans lined with aluminum foil. In experiment 1, at wk 6, broiler excreta were collected for a 24-h period, and 4.5 g of broiler excreta from each treatment group was collected into 15-mL headspace vials. Samples were analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The volatile sulfur compounds that were identified and quantified in the broiler excreta were H2S, carbonyl sulfide (COS), methyl mercaptan (CH3SH), dimethyl disulfide (CH3SSCH3), and dimethyl trisulfide (CH3SSSCH3). The NaMet treatment group had significantly higher concentrations of H2S, COS, and CH3SSCH3 compared with all other treatment groups. The Liq MetHA group had significantly lower concentrations of H2S, COS, CH3SH, and CH3SSCH3 compared with the other treatment groups. The dry MetHA group significantly had the highest concentration of CH4SH. The D,L-Met treatment group had the significantly highest concentration of CH3SSSCH3 and the lowest concentration of H2S. The control group had the significantly lowest concentrations of CH3SH, CH3SSCH3, and CH3SSSCH3 compared with the other treatment groups. In experiment 2, at wk 6, an electronic nose was used to evaluate 15 air samples per treatment group. In addition, 15 air samples (containing 6 to 8 L of air in a Tedlar bag, 3 samples per treatment group) were collected for odor evaluation by a sensory panel. Electronic nose sensor data revealed that volatile compounds in broiler excreta from the control group were significantly different from the other 4 treatment groups. Evaluation of the air samples by a sensory panel determined that there was a statistically significant difference in odor threshold detection between the control group and the other treatment groups. The dilutions to threshold of control group, NaMet, dry MetHA, Liq MetHA, and D,L-Met were 350, 492, 568, 496, and 526 odor units, respectively. These findings demonstrate that dietary Met sources significantly influenced odorous volatile concentrations in broiler excreta.

The impact of methionine source on poultry fecal matter odor volatiles.

To determine the impact of Met source on volatile compounds of broiler excreta, 2 trials were conducted using straight-run broiler chicks that were randomly distributed in battery cages with 3 replicate pens of 16 birds each. The treatment groups were 1) dry Met hydroxy analogue (52% Met activity), 2) sodium methioninate aqueous solution (45.9% Met activity), 3) liquid Met hydroxy analogue (88% Met activity), 4) DL-Met, (98% Met activity), and 5) no supplemental Met. All starter diets were formulated to contain 3,135 kcal of ME/kg, 23% crude protein, and 0.8% total Met activity and otherwise met NRC nutrient requirements. Diets were fed ad libitum from d 1 to termination of the study (5 to 6 wk). Feed consumption and feed conversion were measured daily, and all birds were weighed weekly. There were no significant differences in BW, feed consumption, or feed conversion among the treatments in either trial. All excreta were collected in litter pans daily lined with aluminum foil. Litter pans for each pen were individually transferred to a separate room for weekly odor volatile analysis. An electronic nose was used to capture 3 to 4 air samples from various locations for each pan of broiler excreta resulting in a total of 10 air samples from each treatment group. All data taken from the electronic nose were evaluated using analysis of variance. Results indicated that there were significant differences in volatiles in the broiler excreta for all treatment groups. These data indicate that different Met sources may result in the production of different odor-related compounds in broiler excreta.

Evaluation of a method of ultraviolet light sanitation of broiler hatching eggs.

Sanitation of hatching eggs is an important area of research due to the need for an effective, economical, and safe method of egg sanitation. Improved hatching egg sanitation is an important part of an overall pathogen reduction program within integrated poultry operations. This must be accomplished without disturbing the cuticle of the egg, which can decrease hatchability. The ability of ultraviolet (UV) light to kill bacteria on eggshell surfaces has been well documented. To accomplish the task of treating the eggs in a method that could be commercially implemented, a cabinet was constructed in which ultraviolet lamps were placed. A conveyor system was used to carry a plastic hatching egg flat containing 42 eggs through the cabinet for a period of 3 or 4 min. Ultraviolet intensities within the cabinet reached a maximum of 14 mW/cm2. Experiments were conducted to test the impact of UV light (254 nm) exposure of hatching eggs on aerobic plate counts (APC), inoculated Salmonella typhimurium and inoculated Escherchia coli. In the first three experiments, seven eggs were sampled from a flat passed through the UV chamber. Ultraviolet-treated eggs compared to untreated eggs had APC reductions of 1.3 log, S. typhimurium had a 4 log reduction, and E. coli had a 4 to 5 log reduction. Laboratory trials were also conducted to test the effects of UV irradiation on the cuticle of the egg and hatchability. No significant differences for eggshell conductance or hatchability were found between UV-treated and control eggs. From these trials, it can be concluded that UV irradiation of hatching eggs in a prototype irradiation cabinet can effectively reduce aerobic and pathogenic bacteria on eggshell surfaces without affecting eggshell conductance or hatchability.

Reduction of eggshell aerobic plate counts by ultraviolet irradiation.

The effects of 254 nm ultraviolet light (UV) radiation on aerobic plate count (APC) of egg shells were investigated. In the first experiment, eggs were exposed to UV treatment (7.35 mW/cm2) for 0, 15, 30, and 60 s. Three eggs from each treatment were aseptically collected and placed into sterile plastic bags containing 50 mL of sterile phosphate-buffered solution. Serial dilutions of the phosphate-buffered solution were plated on aerobic plate count agar and incubated at 37 C for 48 h. Exposure of eggshells to 30 and 60 s UV significantly reduced aerobic plate counts compared to untreated eggs. Exposure to 60 s of UV resulted in a 2 to 3 log10 cfu/egg APC reduction and reduced counts below detectable levels. In the second experiment, UV lights were placed in a chamber equipped with a commercial-style egg conveyor. A UV treatment of 7.5 mW/cm2 and time intervals of 0, 12, 36, and 48 s were used. Three eggs were placed consecutively on the conveyor and passed through the chamber. The center egg was selected for APC evaluation. Sample size, dilution, plating, and incubation procedures were used as described for the first experiment. A significant 1 to 2 log10 reduction in colony-forming units per egg between the eggs treated 48 s to the untreated eggs was detected. The results of these studies show that UV light treatment at high intensities and low time intervals has the potential to reduce aerobic plate counts of eggshells.

Comparison of eggshell surface microbial populations for in-line and off-line commercial egg processing facilities.

The objective of this project was to evaluate the aerobic plate counts (APC) of eggshells at in-line and off-line egg processing facilities at selected sites, throughout the processing procedure. Samples were collected from four sites in the processing plant and five time periods during the daily processing shift. Site 1 was from the conveyor system before the eggs passed through the washing system. Site 2 was after detergent wash but before sanitizer application. Site 3 was immediately after sanitizer treatment. Site 4 was immediately before packaging. Samples were collected from the sites at five equally spaced intervals beginning 15 min after the processing shift began and ending 15 min before the processing shift ended. At each sampling time, eggs were aseptically collected from each site and placed into sterile plastic bags containing 50 mL of PBS that was serially diluted immediately. The dilutions were plated on APC agar within 8 h of collection and were incubated at 37 C for 48 h. APC counts of in-line and off-line eggs were compared within time periods across sites. As the processing shift progressed, off-line APC counts were significantly higher than in-line counts at Site 1. At Site 2, off-line APC counts were significantly higher than in-line counts for Periods 2 through 5. At Site 3, off-line APC counts were significantly higher than in-line counts for Periods 2 through 5. Site 4 off-line counts were significantly higher than in-line counts at all time periods.

Characterization of alkaline hydroxide-preserved whole poultry as a dry byproduct meal.

Studies were conducted to examine the chemical preservation of whole broiler carcasses by using aqueous alkaline hydroxide solutions. Conversion of the preserved carcasses and solutions into an acceptable poultry byproduct meal was examined. Carcasses and alkaline solutions at a 1:1 ratio were blended and freeze-dried to produce a high fat whole poultry byproduct meal. The dry meal was analyzed for nutrient composition, true metabolizable energy, and amino acid content. Viable bacteria were not recovered after inoculation of the experimental meal with Salmonella enteritidis. The meal was incorporated at 5 and 10% of chick starter diets. Chicks found the meal-containing diets acceptable. Feed consumption, water consumption, BW, and mortality were not significantly different among the dietary treatments in either of the two feeding trials. Necropsy samples revealed no pathological or histological differences attributable to consumption of the alkaline poultry byproduct and blood serum evaluation found no variation in blood chemistry. Alkaline treatment of whole broiler carcasses was an effective preservation method and acceptable as a dry poultry byproduct meal.

Response of foodborne Salmonella spp. marker strains inoculated on egg shell surfaces to disinfectants in a commercial egg washer.

The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of an iodine based disinfectant (IBD, Iocide, Biomedical Development Corporation, San Antonio, TX) on Salmonella enteritidis and S. typhimurium inoculated on egg shell surfaces under simulated industry egg processing conditions with a commercial egg washer used as the sanitizer delivery system. Re-circulated egg washer water containing 1.40-2.85 g/l total dissolved solids was obtained from a commercial egg processing. Sanitizing treatments consisted of distilled deionized water (DDW), IBD, and chlorine (CL; 200 ppm). All treatments (DDW, IBD and CL) significantly (p < 0.05) decreased Salmonella spp. populations on the shell compared to dry (no spray) egg controls. However, efficacy of egg sanitizers appeared to be dependent on the level of total dissolved solids in the egg wash water.

Egg marketing in national supermarkets: egg quality--part 1.

Two surveys were conducted to determine the quality of eggs offered to consumers in large supermarkets in various regions of the US. The first survey was conducted in California (CA) in 1994 and included 38 samples of large (L) and extra large (XL) white eggs in 15 markets. Individual eggs were weighed, candled, and broken out for Haugh unit (HU) determination. Regional differences in age of eggs, the number of eggs below 55 HU, and the percentage of cracked eggs were observed. The second survey was conducted in California (CA), Illinois (IL), Pennsylvania (PA), Texas (TX), North Carolina (NC), and New England (NE). This study included brown and white eggs and samples from 115 stores in 38 cities. Significant age, egg weight, HU, and cracked egg differences were observed between states. Brown and white eggs were different relative to age and HU, but egg weights and cracked eggs were statistically the same. The two surveys, 1994 and 1996, within CA demonstrated very similar measurements when L-white eggs were compared.

Egg marketing in national supermarkets: specialty eggs--part 2.

Large eggs promoted as having one or more features beyond conventional white or brown shell eggs (specialty eggs) were evaluated for quality and price in a national retail study. Subtypes of specialty eggs included: nutritionally altered eggs, organic eggs, fertile eggs, eggs from welfare-managed hens, or hens fed all-vegetable diets. Extension Poultry Specialists in California (CA), Connecticut, Illinois, North Carolina, Pennsylvania and Texas conducted a survey of egg quality and price and compared 246 dozen specialty eggs with 390 dozen conventional white shell eggs during the summer of 1996. Age of the eggs based on carton dating indicated specialty eggs were older (16.5 d) than white eggs (11.7 d). Average egg weights for specialty compared to white were 60.2 and 59.6 g, respectively. Interior egg quality evaluations including albumen height, Haugh units (HU), and percentage HU <55, indicated white eggs were superior (5.0 mm, 67.5, and 10.6%, respectively) compared to specialty eggs (4.7 mm, 63.8, and 16.3%). Although the percentage of cracked eggs was similar between specialty and white eggs (5.4 and 5.7%), the percentage of leakers was threefold higher for the specialty eggs (1.0 vs. 0.3%). Egg price was substantially higher for the specialty eggs, averaging $2.18/dozen with a range from 0.88 to $4.38, compared to white eggs, averaging $1.23/dozen and ranging from 0.39 to $2.35.