Current advances on Talbot-Lau x-ray imaging diagnostics for high energy density experiments (invited).

Talbot-Lau x-ray interferometry is a refraction-based diagnostic that can map electron density gradients through phase-contrast methods. The Talbot-Lau x-ray deflectometry (TXD) diagnostics have been deployed in several high energy density experiments. To improve diagnostic performance, a monochromatic TXD was implemented on the Multi-Tera Watt (MTW) laser using 8 keV multilayer mirrors (Δθ/θ = 4.5%-5.6%). Copper foil and wire targets were irradiated at 1014-1015 W/cm2. Laser pulse length (∼10 to 80 ps) and backlighter target configurations were explored in the context of Moiré fringe contrast and spatial resolution. Foil and wire targets delivered increased contrast <30%. The best spatial resolution (<6 µm) was measured for foils irradiated 80° from the surface. Further TXD diagnostic capability enhancement was achieved through the development of advanced data postprocessing tools. The Talbot Interferometry Analysis (TIA) code enabled x-ray refraction measurements from the MTW monochromatic TXD. Additionally, phase, attenuation, and dark-field maps of an ablating x-pinch load were retrieved through TXD. The images show a dense wire core of ∼60 µm diameter surrounded by low-density material of ∼40 µm thickness with an outer diameter ratio of ∼2.3. Attenuation at 8 keV was measured at ∼20% for the dense core and ∼10% for the low-density material. Instrumental and experimental limitations for monochromatic TXD diagnostics are presented. Enhanced postprocessing capabilities enabled by TIA are demonstrated in the context of high-intensity laser and pulsed power experimental data analysis. Significant advances in TXD diagnostic capabilities are presented. These results inform future diagnostic technique upgrades that will improve the accuracy of plasma characterization through TXD.

Cylindrical implosion platform for the study of highly magnetized plasmas at Laser MegaJoule.

Investigating the potential benefits of the use of magnetic fields in inertial confinement fusion experiments has given rise to experimental platforms like the Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion approach at the Z-machine (Sandia National Laboratories) or its laser-driven equivalent at OMEGA (Laboratory for Laser Energetics). Implementing these platforms at MegaJoule-scale laser facilities, such as the Laser MegaJoule (LMJ) or the National Ignition Facility (NIF), is crucial to reaching self-sustained nuclear fusion and enlarges the level of magnetization that can be achieved through a higher compression. In this paper, we present a complete design of an experimental platform for magnetized implosions using cylindrical targets at LMJ. A seed magnetic field is generated along the axis of the cylinder using laser-driven coil targets, minimizing debris and increasing diagnostic access compared with pulsed power field generators. We present a comprehensive simulation study of the initial B field generated with these coil targets, as well as two-dimensional extended magnetohydrodynamics simulations showing that a 5 T initial B field is compressed up to 25 kT during the implosion. Under these circumstances, the electrons become magnetized, which severely modifies the plasma conditions at stagnation. In particular, in the hot spot the electron temperature is increased (from 1 keV to 5 keV) while the density is reduced (from 40g/cm^{3} to 7g/cm^{3}). We discuss how these changes can be diagnosed using x-ray imaging and spectroscopy, and particle diagnostics. We propose the simultaneous use of two dopants in the fuel (Ar and Kr) to act as spectroscopic tracers. We show that this introduces an effective spatial resolution in the plasma which permits an unambiguous observation of the B-field effects. Additionally, we present a plan for future experiments of this kind at LMJ.

Inefficient Magnetic-Field Amplification in Supersonic Laser-Plasma Turbulence.

We report a laser-plasma experiment that was carried out at the LMJ-PETAL facility and realized the first magnetized, turbulent, supersonic (Ma_{turb}≈2.5) plasma with a large magnetic Reynolds number (Rm≈45) in the laboratory. Initial seed magnetic fields were amplified, but only moderately so, and did not become dynamically significant. A notable absence of magnetic energy at scales smaller than the outer scale of the turbulent cascade was also observed. Our results support the notion that moderately supersonic, low-magnetic-Prandtl-number plasma turbulence is inefficient at amplifying magnetic fields compared to its subsonic, incompressible counterpart.

Exploring the Atwood-number dependence of the highly nonlinear Rayleigh-Taylor instability regime in high-energy-density conditions.

We experimentally study the late-time, highly nonlinear regime of the Rayleigh-Taylor instability in a decelerating phase. A series of laser-driven experiments is performed on the LULI2000 laser, in which the initial Atwood number is varied by adjusting the decelerating medium density. The high-power laser is used in a direct drive configuration to put into motion a solid target. Its rear side, which initially possesses a two-dimensional machined sinusoidal perturbations, expands and decelerates into a foam leading to a Rayleigh-Taylor unstable situation. The interface position and morphology are measured by time-resolved x-ray radiography. We develop a simple Atwood-dependent model describing the motion of the decelerating interface, from which its acceleration history is obtained. The measured amplitude of the instability, or mixing zone width, is then compared with late-time acceleration-dependent Rayleigh-Taylor instability models. The shortcomings of this classical model, when applied to high-energy-density conditions, are shown. This calls into question their uses for systems, where a shock wave is present, such as those found in laboratory astrophysics or in inertial confinement fusion.

Shock Ignition Laser-Plasma Interactions in Ignition-Scale Plasmas.

We use a subignition scale laser, the 30 kJ Omega, and a novel shallow-cone target to study laser-plasma interactions at the ablation-plasma density scale lengths and laser intensities anticipated for direct drive shock-ignition implosions at National Ignition Facility scale. Our results show that, under these conditions, the dominant instability is convective stimulated Raman scatter with experimental evidence of two plasmon decay (TPD) only when the density scale length is reduced. Particle-in-cell simulations indicate this is due to TPD being shifted to lower densities, removing the experimental back-scatter signature and reducing the hot-electron temperature. The experimental laser energy-coupling to hot electrons was found to be 1%-2.5%, with electron temperatures between 35 and 45 keV. Radiation-hydrodynamics simulations employing these hot-electron characteristics indicate that they should not preheat the fuel in MJ-scale shock ignition experiments.

Talbot-Lau x-ray deflectometer: Refraction-based HEDP imaging diagnostic.

Talbot-Lau x-ray interferometry has been implemented to map electron density gradients in High Energy Density Physics (HEDP) experiments. X-ray backlighter targets have been evaluated for Talbot-Lau X-ray Deflectometry (TXD). Cu foils, wires, and sphere targets have been irradiated by 10-150 J, 8-30 ps laser pulses, while two pulsed-power generators (∼350 kA, 350 ns and ∼200 kA, 150 ns) have driven Cu wire, hybrid, and laser-cut x-pinches. A plasma ablation front generated by the Omega EP laser was imaged for the first time through TXD for densities >1023 cm-3. Backlighter optimization in combination with x-ray CCD, image plates, and x-ray film has been assessed in terms of spatial resolution and interferometer contrast for accurate plasma characterization through TXD in pulsed-power and high-intensity laser environments. The results obtained thus far demonstrate the potential of TXD as a powerful diagnostic for HEDP.

Micron-scale phenomena observed in a turbulent laser-produced plasma.

Turbulence is ubiquitous in the universe and in fluid dynamics. It influences a wide range of high energy density systems, from inertial confinement fusion to astrophysical-object evolution. Understanding this phenomenon is crucial, however, due to limitations in experimental and numerical methods in plasma systems, a complete description of the turbulent spectrum is still lacking. Here, we present the measurement of a turbulent spectrum down to micron scale in a laser-plasma experiment. We use an experimental platform, which couples a high power optical laser, an x-ray free-electron laser and a lithium fluoride crystal, to study the dynamics of a plasma flow with micrometric resolution (~1µm) over a large field of view (>1 mm2). After the evolution of a Rayleigh-Taylor unstable system, we obtain spectra, which are overall consistent with existing turbulent theory, but present unexpected features. This work paves the way towards a better understanding of numerous systems, as it allows the direct comparison of experimental results, theory and numerical simulations.

Bremsstrahlung cannon design for shock ignition relevant regime.

We report on the optimization of a BremsStrahlung Cannon (BSC) design for the investigation of laser-driven fast electron populations in a shock ignition relevant experimental campaign at the Laser Megajoule-PETawatt Aquitaine Laser facility. In this regime with laser intensities of 1015 W/cm2-1016 W/cm2, fast electrons with energies ≤100 keV are expected to be generated through Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS) and Two Plasmon Decay (TPD) instabilities. The main purpose of the BSC in our experiment is to identify the contribution to x-ray emission from bremsstrahlung of fast electrons originating from SRS and TPD, with expected temperatures of 40 keV and 95 keV, respectively. Data analysis and reconstruction of the distributions of x-ray photons incident on the BSC are described.

Recent progress in quantifying hydrodynamics instabilities and turbulence in inertial confinement fusion and high-energy-density experiments.

Since the seminal paper of Nuckolls triggering the quest of inertial confinement fusion (ICF) with lasers, hydrodynamic instabilities have been recognized as one of the principal hurdles towards ignition. This remains true nowadays for both main approaches (indirect drive and direct drive), despite the advent of MJ scale lasers with tremendous technological capabilities. From a fundamental science perspective, these gigantic laser facilities enable also the possibility to create dense plasma flows evolving towards turbulence, being magnetized or not. We review the state of the art of nonlinear hydrodynamics and turbulent experiments, simulations and theory in ICF and high-energy-density plasmas and draw perspectives towards in-depth understanding and control of these fascinating phenomena. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Prospects for high gain inertial fusion energy (part 2)'.

Proof-of-concept Talbot-Lau x-ray interferometry with a high-intensity, high-repetition-rate, laser-driven K-alpha source.

Talbot-Lau x-ray interferometry is a grating-based phase-contrast technique, which enables measurement of refractive index changes in matter with micrometric spatial resolution. The technique has been established using a variety of hard x-ray sources, including synchrotron, free-electron lasers, and x-ray tubes, and could be used in the optical range for low-density plasmas. The tremendous development of table-top high-power lasers makes the use of high-intensity, laser-driven K-alpha sources appealing for Talbot-Lau interferometer applications in both high-energy-density plasma experiments and biological imaging. To this end, we present the first, to the best of our knowledge, feasibility study of Talbot-Lau phase-contrast imaging using a high-repetition-rate laser of moderate energy (100 mJ at a repetition rate of 10 Hz) to irradiate a copper backlighter foil. The results from up to 900 laser pulses were integrated to form interferometric images. A constant fringe contrast of 20% is demonstrated over 100 accumulations, while the signal-to-noise ratio continued to increase with the number of shots. Phase retrieval is demonstrated without prior ex-situ phase stepping. Instead, correlation matrices are used to compensate for the displacement between reference acquisition and the probing of a PMMA target rod. The steps for improved measurements with more energetic laser systems are discussed. The final results are in good agreement with the theoretically predicted outcomes, demonstrating the applicability of this diagnostic to a range of laser facilities for use across several disciplines.

Hybrid target design for imprint mitigation in direct-drive inertial confinement fusion.

A target design for mitigating the Rayleigh-Taylor instability is proposed for use in high energy density and direct-drive inertial confinement fusion experiments. In this scheme, a thin gold membrane is offset from the main target by several-hundred microns. A strong picket on the drive beams is incident upon this membrane to produce x rays which generate the initial shock through the target. The main drive follows shortly thereafter, passing through the ablated shell and directly driving the main target. The efficacy of this scheme is demonstrated through experiments performed at the OMEGA EP facility, showing a reduction of the Rayleigh-Taylor instability growth which scales exponentially with frequency, suppressing development by at least a factor of 5 for all wavelengths below 100 µm. This results in a delay in the time of target perforation by ∼40%.

Rayleigh-Taylor instability experiments on the LULI2000 laser in scaled conditions for young supernova remnants.

We describe a platform developed on the LULI2000 laser facility to investigate the evolution of Rayleigh-Taylor instability (RTI) in scaled conditions relevant to young supernova remnants (SNRs) up to 200 years. An RT unstable interface is imaged with a short-pulse laser-driven (PICO2000) x-ray source, providing an unprecedented simultaneous high spatial (24µm) and temporal (10 ps) resolution. This experiment provides relevant data to compare with astrophysical codes, as observational data on the development of RTI at the early stage of the SNR expansion are missing. A comparison is also performed with FLASH radiative magnetohydrodynamic simulations.

Modeling the solid-to-plasma transition for laser imprinting in direct-drive inertial confinement fusion.

Laser imprinting possesses a potential danger for low-adiabat and high-convergence implosions in direct-drive inertial confinement fusion (ICF). Within certain direct-drive ICF schemes, a laser picket (prepulse) is used to condition the target to increase the interaction efficiency with the main pulse. Whereas initially the target is in a solid state (of ablators such as polystyrene) with specific electronic and optical properties, the current state-of-the-art hydrocodes assume an initial plasma state, which ignores the detailed plasma formation process. To overcome this strong assumption, a model describing the solid-to-plasma transition, eventually aiming at being implemented in hydrocodes, is developed. It describes the evolution of main physical quantities of interest, including the free electron density, collision frequency, absorbed laser energy, temperatures, and pressure, during the first stage of the laser-matter interaction. The results show that a time about 100 ps is required for the matter to undergo the phase transition, the initial solid state thus having a notable impact on the subsequent plasma dynamics. The nonlinear absorption processes (associated to the solid state) are also shown to have an influence on the thermodynamic quantities after the phase transition, leading to target deformations depending on the initial solid state. The negative consequences for the ICF schemes consist in shearing of the ablator and possibly preliminary heating of the deuterium-tritium fuel.

Advanced high resolution x-ray diagnostic for HEDP experiments.

High resolution X-ray imaging is crucial for many high energy density physics (HEDP) experiments. Recently developed techniques to improve resolution have, however, come at the cost of a decreased field of view. In this paper, an innovative experimental detector for X-ray imaging in the context of HEDP experiments with high spatial resolution, as well as a large field of view, is presented. The platform is based on coupling an X-ray backligther source with a Lithium Fluoride detector, characterized by its large dynamic range. A spatial resolution of 2 µm over a field of view greater than 2 mm2 is reported. The platform was benchmarked with both an X-ray free electron laser (XFEL) and an X-ray source produced by a short pulse laser. First, using a non-coherent short pulse laser-produced backlighter, reduced penumbra blurring, as a result of the large size of the X-ray source, is shown. Secondly, we demonstrate phase contrast imaging with a fully coherent monochromatic XFEL beam. Modeling of the absorption and phase contrast transmission of X-ray radiation passing through various targets is presented.

X-ray backlighter requirements for refraction-based electron density diagnostics through Talbot-Lau deflectometry.

Talbot-Lau x-ray interferometers can map electron density gradients in High Energy Density (HED) samples. In the deflectometer configuration, it can provide refraction, attenuation, elemental composition, and scatter information from a single image. X-ray backlighters in Talbot-Lau deflectometry must meet specific requirements regarding source size and x-ray spectra, amongst others, to accurately diagnose a wide range of HED experiments. 8 keV sources produced in the high-power laser and pulsed power environment were evaluated as x-ray backlighters for Talbot-Lau x-ray deflectometry. In high-power laser experiments, K-shell emission was produced by irradiating copper targets (500 × 500 × 12.5 µm3 foils, 20 µm diameter wire, and >10 µm diameter spheres) with 30 J, 8-30 ps laser pulses and a 25 µm copper wire with a 60 J, 10 ps laser pulse. In the pulsed power environment, single (2 × 40 µm) and double (4 × 25 µm) copper x-pinches were driven at ∼1 kA/ns. Moiré fringe formation was demonstrated for all x-ray sources explored, and detector performance was evaluated for x-ray films, x-ray CCDs, and imaging plates in context of spatial resolution, x-ray emission, and fringe contrast.

Laboratory evidence of dynamo amplification of magnetic fields in a turbulent plasma.

Magnetic fields are ubiquitous in the Universe. The energy density of these fields is typically comparable to the energy density of the fluid motions of the plasma in which they are embedded, making magnetic fields essential players in the dynamics of the luminous matter. The standard theoretical model for the origin of these strong magnetic fields is through the amplification of tiny seed fields via turbulent dynamo to the level consistent with current observations. However, experimental demonstration of the turbulent dynamo mechanism has remained elusive, since it requires plasma conditions that are extremely hard to re-create in terrestrial laboratories. Here we demonstrate, using laser-produced colliding plasma flows, that turbulence is indeed capable of rapidly amplifying seed fields to near equipartition with the turbulent fluid motions. These results support the notion that turbulent dynamo is a viable mechanism responsible for the observed present-day magnetization.

Two crystal x-ray spectrometers for OMEGA experiments.

Two x-ray spectrometers have been built for x-ray spectroscopy of laser-produced plasmas on OMEGA at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics (LLE) by Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA). The accessible photon energy range is from 1.5 to 20 keV. The first spectrometer, called X-ray CEA Crystal Spectrometer with a Charge-Injection Device (XCCS-CID), records three spectra with three crystals coupled to a time integrated CID camera. The second one, called X-ray CEA Crystal Spectrometer (XCCS) with a framing camera, is time resolved and records four spectra with two crystals on the four frames of a framing camera. Cylindrical crystals are used in Johan geometry. Each spectrometer is positioned with a ten-inch manipulator inside the OMEGA target chamber. In each experiment, after choosing a spectral window, a specific configuration is designed and concave crystals are precisely positioned on a board with angled wedges and spacers. Slits on snouts enable 1D spatial resolution to distinguish spectra emitted from different parts of the target.

First set of gated x-ray imaging diagnostics for the Laser Megajoule facility.

The Laser Megajoule (LMJ) facility located at CEA/CESTA started to operate in the early 2014 with two quadruplets (20 kJ at 351 nm) focused on target for the first experimental campaign. We present here the first set of gated x-ray imaging (GXI) diagnostics implemented on LMJ since mid-2014. This set consists of two imaging diagnostics with spatial, temporal, and broadband spectral resolution. These diagnostics will give basic measurements, during the entire life of the facility, such as position, structure, and balance of beams, but they will also be used to characterize gas filled target implosion symmetry and timing, to study x-ray radiography and hydrodynamic instabilities. The design requires a vulnerability approach, because components will operate in a harsh environment induced by neutron fluxes, gamma rays, debris, and shrapnel. Grazing incidence x-ray microscopes are fielded as far as possible away from the target to minimize potential damage and signal noise due to these sources. These imaging diagnostics incorporate microscopes with large source-to-optic distance and large size gated microchannel plate detectors. Microscopes include optics with grazing incidence mirrors, pinholes, and refractive lenses. Spatial, temporal, and spectral performances have been measured on x-ray tubes and UV lasers at CEA-DIF and at Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt BESSY II synchrotron prior to be set on LMJ. GXI-1 and GXI-2 designs, metrology, and first experiments on LMJ are presented here.

Evidence for a bubble-competition regime in indirectly driven ablative Rayleigh-Taylor instability experiments on the NIF.

We investigate on the National Ignition Facility the ablative Rayleigh-Taylor instability in the transition from weakly nonlinear to highly nonlinear regimes. A planar plastic package with preimposed two-dimensional broadband modulations is accelerated for up to 12 ns by the x-ray drive of a gas-filled Au radiation cavity with a radiative temperature plateau at 175 eV. This extended tailored drive allows a distance traveled in excess of 1 mm for a 130 µm thick foil. Measurements of the modulation optical density performed by x-ray radiography show that a bubble-merger regime for the Rayleigh-Taylor instability at an ablation front is achieved for the first time in indirect drive. The mutimode modulation amplitudes are in the nonlinear regime, grow beyond the Haan multimode saturation level, evolve toward the longer wavelengths, and show insensitivity to the initial conditions.

Gigabar spherical shock generation on the OMEGA laser.

This Letter presents the first experimental demonstration of the capability to launch shocks of several-hundred Mbar in spherical targets--a milestone for shock ignition [R. Betti et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 98, 155001 (2007)]. Using the temporal delay between the launching of the strong shock at the outer surface of the spherical target and the time when the shock converges at the center, the shock-launching pressure can be inferred using radiation-hydrodynamic simulations. Peak ablation pressures exceeding 300 Mbar are inferred at absorbed laser intensities of ∼3×10(15) W/cm2. The shock strength is shown to be significantly enhanced by the coupling of suprathermal electrons with a total converted energy of up to 8% of the incident laser energy. At the end of the laser pulse, the shock pressure is estimated to exceed ∼1 Gbar because of convergence effects.