Antimicrobial Resistance in Livestock: A Serious Threat to Public Health.

Antimicrobial resistance represents an alarming public health problem; its importance is related to the significant clinical implications (increased morbidity, mortality, disease duration, development of comorbidities, and epidemics), as well as its economic effects on the healthcare sector. In fact, therapeutic options are severely limited by the advent and spread of germs resistant to many antibiotics. The situation worldwide is worrying, especially in light of the prevalence of Gram-negative bacteria-Klebsiella pneumoniae and Acinetobacter baumannii-which are frequently isolated in hospital environments and, more specifically, in intensive care units. The problem is compounded by the ineffective treatment of infections by patients who often self-prescribe therapy. Resistant bacteria also show resistance to the latest generation antibiotics, such as carbapenems. In fact, superbacteria, grouped under the acronym extended-spectrum betalactamase (ESBL), are becoming common. Antibiotic resistance is also found in the livestock sector, with serious repercussions on animal production. In general, this phenomenon affects all members of the biosphere and can only be addressed by adopting a holistic "One Health" approach. In this literature overview, a stock is taken of what has been learned about antibiotic resistance, and suggestions are proposed to stem its advance.

Trace Elements in Stenella coeruleoalba: Assessment of Marine Environmental Pollution and Dolphin Health Status.

Heavy metals are environmental contaminants and can easily accumulate and biomagnify in various marine species (fishes and mammalians) at the top of the aquatic food chain. Among marine mammalians, the striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba) is the most abundant cetacean in the Mediterranean Sea and is considered to be a sentinel species to monitor the environmental marine pollution. In this study, the contents of toxic metals and metalloids (Cd, Pb, Hg, and As), micro-elements (Ni, Cr, Cu, Fe, Co, Mn, Se and Zn) and macro-elements (Na, Ca, K, Mg and P) were evaluated by ICP-MS analysis in several organs/tissues (lung, skin, muscle and liver) of Stenella coeruleoalba. The assessment of marine environmental pollution and dolphins health status was carried out through further analysis of the same specific parameters such as the metal pollution index (MPI) and coefficient of condition (K). Finally, the correlation between toxic metals and metalloids and essential micro-elements, expressed as molar ratios, was analyzed to evaluate the detoxifying ability (effectiveness) of Zn, Se and Cu. Data obtained showed the presence of toxic metals and metalloids analyzed in the Stenella coeruleoalba samples but the MPI values suggested a low environmental contamination of the Mediterranean Sea where dolphins lived. The content of micro- and macro-elements was found to be in a normal range for this species and predictive of dolphins good health status, as confirmed by the coefficient of condition K. However, the correlation between toxic and essential metals, expressed as molar ratios, showed that the following toxic metals cannot be detoxified by the essential metals: 66Zn/201Hg, 82Se/201Hg, 63Cu/201Hg and 66Zn/52Cr, 82Se/52Cr, 63Cu/52Cr. Therefore, this study highlights the key role of dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba to assess marine pollution and the importance of analyzing the complete mineral profile to evaluate the animal health status.

Prevalence of Helminths in Small Ruminant Farms and Evaluation of Control Practices Used to Counter Anthelmintic Resistance in Southern Italy.

Anthelmintic resistance in small ruminants is a serious worldwide problem. To reduce their spread, it is essential to know the prevalence of helminths on farms and the control practices adopted. As these studies in the Calabria region of southern Italy are fragmentary and outdated, a study on the prevalence of helminths in small ruminant holdings in this area has been conducted. The measures implemented to control helminths were also evaluated through questionnaires administered to farmers. In particular, on 90 farms (45 sheep and 45 goats), 1800 faecal samples from 900 sheep and 900 goats were collected in the spring. Using the FLOTAC dual technique, parasitological examinations demonstrated the presence of gastrointestinal nematodes in 100% of sheep and goat farms, followed by Nematodirus spp. (84.44% sheep and 48.89% goats), Moniezia spp. (73.33% sheep and 35.56% goats), Trichuris ovis (48.89% sheep and 42.22% goats), lungworms (28.89% sheep and 42.22% goats), Strongyloides papillosus (40% sheep and 26.67% goats), Dicrocoelium dendriticum (13.33% sheep and 26.67% goats), Calicophoron daubneyi (6.67% sheep and 31.11% goats), Fasciola hepatica (6.67% sheep and 4.44% goats), and Skrjabinema ovis (4.44% sheep and goats). The questionnaires showed that 82% and 85% of the farmers had applied pasture rotation, and that 93.3% and 86.6% had used anthelmintics in the previous year for sheep and goats, respectively. Only 24.4% of sheep farmers and 11.3% of goat farmers had carried out parasitological tests prior to treatments. The most used classes of anthelmintics were macrocyclic lactones and benzimidazoles, and only in 21.6% and 15.6%, for sheep and goats, respectively, was drug rotation carried out. These results denote that helminths represent a health problem for small ruminants and highlight a lack of knowledge of parasite control strategies among farmers. In these conditions, anthelmintic resistance phenomena could develop over time. Therefore, it is necessary to implement all possible strategies for the control of helminths, and to prevent the spread of anthelmintic resistance phenomena on farms in southern Italy.

Hive Products: Composition, Pharmacological Properties, and Therapeutic Applications.

Beekeeping provides products with nutraceutical and pharmaceutical characteristics. These products are characterized by abundance of bioactive compounds. For different reasons, honey, royal jelly, propolis, venom, and pollen are beneficial to humans and animals and could be used as therapeutics. The pharmacological action of these products is related to many of their constituents. The main bioactive components of honey include oligosaccharides, methylglyoxal, royal jelly proteins (MRJPs), and phenolics compounds. Royal jelly contains jelleins, royalisin peptides, MRJPs, and derivatives of hydroxy-decenoic acid, particularly 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10-HDA), which possess antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, neuromodulatory, metabolic syndrome-preventing, and anti-aging properties. Propolis has a plethora of activities that are referable to compounds such as caffeic acid phenethyl ester. Peptides found in bee venom include phospholipase A2, apamin, and melittin. In addition to being vitamin-rich, bee pollen also includes unsaturated fatty acids, sterols, and phenolics compounds that express antiatherosclerotic, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Therefore, the constituents of hive products are particular and different. All of these constituents have been investigated for their properties in numerous research studies. This review aims to provide a thorough screening of the bioactive chemicals found in honeybee products and their beneficial biological effects. The manuscript may provide impetus to the branch of unconventional medicine that goes by the name of apitherapy.

The Bee Gut Microbiota: Bridging Infective Agents Potential in the One Health Context.

The bee gut microbiota plays an important role in the services the bees pay to the environment, humans and animals. Alongside, gut-associated microorganisms are vehiculated between apparently remote habitats, promoting microbial heterogeneity of the visited microcosms and the transfer of the microbial genetic elements. To date, no metaproteomics studies dealing with the functional bee microbiota are available. Here, we employ a metaproteomics approach to explore a fraction of the bacterial, fungal, and unicellular parasites inhabiting the bee gut. The bacterial community portrays a dynamic composition, accounting for specimens of human and animal concern. Their functional features highlight the vehiculation of virulence and antimicrobial resistance traits. The fungal and unicellular parasite fractions include environment- and animal-related specimens, whose metabolic activities support the spatial spreading of functional features. Host proteome depicts the major bee physiological activities, supporting the metaproteomics strategy for the simultaneous study of multiple microbial specimens and their host-crosstalks. Altogether, the present study provides a better definition of the structure and function of the bee gut microbiota, highlighting its impact in a variety of strategies aimed at improving/overcoming several current hot topic issues such as antimicrobial resistance, environmental pollution and the promotion of environmental health.

Interaction of Flupyradifurone and Deltamethrin, Two Pesticides Commonly Used for Plant Pest Control, in Honeybees.

Nowadays, old-generation pesticides are released into ecosystems alongside new formulations, giving rise to pharmacological interactions (additive, synergistic, and antagonistic effects). The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact that simultaneous exposure to DMT and FLU doses has on bee health. Groups of twenty honeybees were housed in cages to compose six macro-groups. One group consisted of experimental replicates treated orally with a toxic dose of deltamenthrin (DMT 21.6 mg/L); two other groups were subjected to the oral administration of two toxic doses of flupyradifurone (FLU 50 mg/L and FLU 100 mg/L); and two other groups were intoxicated with a combination of the two pesticides (DMT 21.6 + FLU 50 and DMT 21.6 + FLU 100). The consequences of the pesticides' interactions were highlighted by measuring and comparing data on survival, food consumption, and abnormal behavior. Generally speaking, antagonism between the two pesticides has been demonstrated. The bees were able to survive for up to three days at the lowest dosage of FLU (50 mg/L), with 46% of the subjects still alive; however, the maximum dose (100 mg/L) caused all treated animals to die as early as the second day. When DMT and FLU 50 were administered together, the group that received DMT alone had a lower survival rate. When comparing the survival rates produced by the DMT and FLU 50 combination to those of the group receiving FLU 50 alone, the same was clearly visible. While there was no statistically significant improvement observed when the survival indices of the DMT and FLU 100 combination were compared to those of the group intoxicated with DMT alone, an improvement in survival indices was observed when these were compared with the group intoxicated with FLU 100 alone.

Bergamot Polyphenolic Fraction for the Control of Flupyradifurone-Induced Poisoning in Honeybees.

Flupyradifurone (FLU) is a butenolide insecticide that has come onto the market relatively recently. It is used in agriculture to control aphids, psyllids, and whiteflies. Toxicity studies have decreed its low toxicity to honeybees. However, recent research has challenged these claims; oral exposure to the pesticide can lead to behavioral abnormalities and in the worst cases, lethal phenomena. Compounds with antioxidant activity, such as flavonoids and polyphenols, have been shown to protect against the toxic effects of pesticides. The aim of this research was to evaluate the possible protective effect of the bergamot polyphenolic fraction (BPF) against behavioral abnormalities and lethality induced by toxic doses of FLU orally administered to honeybees under laboratory conditions. Honeybees were assigned to experimental groups in which two toxic doses of FLU, 50 mg/L and 100 mg/L were administered. In other replicates, three doses (1, 2 and 5 mg/kg) of the bergamot polyphenolic fraction (BPF) were added to the above toxic doses. In the experimental groups intoxicated with FLU at the highest dose tested, all caged subjects (20 individuals) died within the second day of administration. The survival probability of the groups to which the BPF was added was compared to that of the groups to which only the toxic doses of FLU were administered. The mortality rate in the BPF groups was statistically lower (p < 0.05) than in the intoxicated groups; in addition, a lower percentage of individuals exhibited behavioral abnormalities. According to this research, the ingestion of the BPF attenuates the harmful effects of FLU. Further studies are needed before proposing BPF incorporation into the honeybees' diet, but there already seem to be beneficial effects associated with its intake.

Effect of pomegranate (Punica granatum) anthelmintic treatment on milk production in dairy sheep naturally infected with gastrointestinal nematodes.

Anthelmintic drug resistance has proliferated across Europe in sheep gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs). Sheep welfare and health are adversely impacted by these phenomena, which also have an impact on productivity. Finding alternatives for controlling GINs in sheep is thus of utmost importance. In this study, the anthelmintic effectiveness (AE) of a Calabrian ethnoveterinary aqueous macerate based on Punica granatum (whole fruits) was assessed in Comisana pregnant sheep. Furthermore, an examination, both qualitative and quantitative, was conducted on milk. Forty-five sheep were selected for the investigation. The sheep were divided by age, weight, physiological state (pluripara at 20 days before parturition), and eggs per gram of feces (EPG) into three homogeneous groups of 15 animals each: PG received a single oral dosage of P. granatum macerate at a rate of 50 mL per sheep; AG, treated with albendazole, was administered orally at 3.75 mg/kg/bw; and CG received no treatment. Timelines were as follows: D0, treatments, group assignment, fecal sampling, and AE assessment; D7, D14, D21, fecal sampling, and AE evaluation. The FLOTAC technique was used to evaluate the individual GIN fecal egg count (FEC) using a sodium chloride flotation solution (specific gravity = 1.20) and 100 × (1-[T2/C2]) as the formula for evaluating FEC reduction. Following the lambs' weaning, milk was collected on the following days (DL) in order to quantify production: DL35, DL42, DL49, DL56, DL63, DL70, DL77, and DL84. The amount of milk produced by every animal was measured and reported in milliliters (ml) for quantitative evaluations. Using MilkoScan TM fT + foss electric, Denmark, the quality of the milk (casein, lactose, protein concentration, and fat, expressed as a percentage) was assessed. The macerate demonstrated a considerable AE (51.8%). Moreover, its use has resulted in higher milk production rates quantitatively (15.5%) and qualitatively (5.12% protein, 4.12% casein, 4.21% lactose, and 8.18% fat). The study showed that green veterinary pharmacology could be the easiest future approach to counteracting anthelmintic resistance in sheep husbandry.

Use of Essential Oils to Counteract the Phenomena of Antimicrobial Resistance in Livestock Species.

Antimicrobial resistance is an increasingly widespread phenomenon that is of particular concern because of the possible consequences in the years to come. The dynamics leading to the resistance of microbial strains are diverse, but certainly include the incorrect use of veterinary drugs both in terms of dosage and timing of administration. Moreover, the drug is often administered in the absence of a diagnosis. Many active ingredients in pharmaceutical formulations are, therefore, losing their efficacy. In this situation, it is imperative to seek alternative treatment solutions. Essential oils are mixtures of compounds with different pharmacological properties. They have been shown to possess the antibacterial, anti-parasitic, antiviral, and regulatory properties of numerous metabolic processes. The abundance of molecules they contain makes it difficult for treated microbial species to develop pharmacological resistance. Given their natural origin, they are environmentally friendly and show little or no toxicity to higher animals. There are several published studies on the use of essential oils as antimicrobials, but the present literature has not been adequately summarized in a manuscript. This review aims to shed light on the results achieved by the scientific community regarding the use of essential oils to treat the main agents of bacterial infection of veterinary interest in livestock. The Google Scholar, PubMed, SciELO, and SCOPUS databases were used for the search and selection of studies. The manuscript aims to lay the foundations for a new strategy of veterinary drug use that is more environmentally friendly and less prone to the emergence of drug resistance phenomena.

Chemical Profile of Essential Oils of Selected Lamiaceae Plants and In Vitro Activity for Varroosis Control in Honeybees (Apis mellifera).

The most significant ectoparasitic mite of honeybees, Varroa destructor, has a detrimental effect on bee health and honey output. The principal strategy used by the control programs is the application of synthetic acaricides. All of this has resulted in drug resistance, which is now a major worry for beekeeping. As a result, research on alternate products and techniques for mite management is now required. The aim of this study was to determine whether essential oils (EOs) extracted from botanical species of Lamiacae, typical of the Calabria region of Southern Italy, could reduce the population of the mite V. destructor. Among the best-known genera of the Lamiaceae family are oregano, rosemary and thyme, whose EOs were employed in this study. By steam distillation, the EOs were extracted from Origanum vulgare subsp. viridulum (Martrin-Donos) Nyman, Thymus capitatus Hoffmanns. and Link, Thymus longicaulis C.Presl and Salvia rosmarinus Schleid. plant species harvested directly on the Calabrian territory in their balsamic time. Each EO went to the test in vitro (contact toxicity) against V. destructor. Fifty adult female mites, five for each EO and the positive and negative control, were used in each experimental replicate. The positive controls comprised five individuals treated to Amitraz dilute in acetone, and the negative controls included five individuals exposed to acetone alone. To create the working solution to be tested (50 µL/tube), the EOs were diluted (0.5 mg/mL, 1 mg/mL, 2 mg/mL and 4 mg/mL) in HPLC-grade acetone. After 1 h of exposure, mite mortality was manually assessed. Origanum vulgare subsp. viridulum, Thymus capitatus and Thymus longicaulis were the EOs with the highest levels of efficiency at 2 mg/mL, neutralizing (dead + inactivated), 94%, 92% and 94% of parasites, respectively. Salvia rosmarinus EO gave a lower efficacy, resulting in a percentage of 38%. Interestingly, no adverse effects were highlighted in toxicity tests on honeybees. These results show that these OEs of the Lamiaceae family have antiparasitic action on V. destructor. Therefore, they could be used, individually or combined, to exploit the synergistic effect for a more sustainable control of this parasite mite in honeybee farms.

Protective Role of Bergamot Polyphenolic Fraction (BPF) against Deltamethrin Toxicity in Honeybees (Apis mellifera).

Pesticide-induced poisoning phenomena are a serious problem for beekeeping and can cause large losses of honeybee populations due to acute and sub-acute poisoning. The reduced responsiveness of honeybees to the damage caused by pesticides used in agriculture can be traced back to a general qualitative and quantitative impoverishment of the nectar resources of terrestrial ecosystems. Malnutrition is associated with a decline in the functionality of the immune system and the systems that are delegated to the detoxification of the organism. This research aimed to verify whether bergamot polyphenolic extract (BPF) could have protective effects against poisoning by the pyrethroid pesticide deltamethrin. The studies were conducted with caged honeybees under controlled conditions. Sub-lethal doses of pesticides and related treatments for BPF were administered. At a dose of 21.6 mg/L, deltamethrin caused mortality in all treated subjects (20 caged honeybees) after one day of administration. The groups where BPF (1 mg/kg) was added to the toxic solution recorded the survival of honeybees by up to three days. Comparing the honeybees of the groups in which the BPF-deltamethrin association was added to the normal diet (sugar solution) with those in which deltamethrin alone was added to the normal diet, the BPF group had a statistically significant reduction in the honeybee mortality rate (p ≤ 0.05) and a greater consumption of food. Therefore, it can be argued that the inclusion of BPF and its constituent antioxidants in the honeybee diet reduces toxicity and oxidative stress caused by oral intake of deltamethrin. Furthermore, it can be argued that BPF administration could compensate for metabolic energy deficits often induced by the effects of malnutrition caused by environmental degradation and standard beekeeping practices.

Plants and Their Derivatives as Promising Therapeutics for Sustainable Control of Honeybee (Apis mellifera) Pathogens.

The most important pollinator for agricultural crops is the Western honeybee (Apis mellifera). During the winter and summer seasons, diseases and stresses of various kinds endanger honeybee numbers and production, resulting in expenses for beekeepers and detrimental effects on agriculture and ecosystems. Researchers are continually in search of therapies for honeybees using the resources of microbiology, molecular biology, and chemistry to combat diseases and improve the overall health of these important pollinating insects. Among the most investigated and most promising solutions are medicinal plants and their derivatives. The health of animals and their ability to fight disease can be supported by natural products (NPs) derived from living organisms such as plants and microbes. NPs contain substances that can reduce the effects of diseases by promoting immunity or directly suppressing pathogens, and parasites. This literature review summarises the advances that the scientific community has achieved over the years regarding veterinary treatments in beekeeping through the use of NPs. Their impact on the prevention and control of honeybee diseases is investigated both in trials that have been conducted in the laboratory and field studies.

Prevalence of Varroa destructor in Honeybee (Apis mellifera) Farms and Varroosis Control Practices in Southern Italy.

The majority of honeybee farms in industrialized countries currently base their Varroa destructor control programs on the use of acaricides in conjunction with other management practices. However, the outcomes of these practices are often misunderstood and have only been studied to a limited extent. Better yields are guaranteed by having hives with low infection levels in the spring. Therefore, it is crucial to understand which beekeeping practices can result in increased control effectiveness. This study aimed to analyze the potential effects of environmental factors and beekeeping practices on the dynamics of V. destructor population. Experimental evidence was obtained by interpolating percentage infestation data from diagnoses conducted on several apiaries in the Calabria region (Southern Italy) with data acquired from a questionnaire on pest control strategies. Data on climatic temperature during the different study periods were also taken into account. The study was conducted over two years and involved 84 Apis mellifera farms. For each apiary, the diagnosis of infestation was made on a minimum of 10 hives. In total, 840 samples of adult honeybees were analyzed in the field to determine the level of infestation. In 2020, 54.7% of the inspected apiaries tested positive for V. destructor, and in 2021, 50% tested positive, according to a study of the field test findings (taking into account a threshold of 3% in July). A significant effect of the number of treatments on parasite prevalence was found. The results showed a significant reduction in the infestation rate in apiaries that received more than two treatments each year. Furthermore, it was shown that management practices, such as drone brood removal and frequent queen replacement, have a statistically significant impact on the infestation rate. The analysis of the questionnaires revealed some critical issues. In particular, only 50% of the interviewed beekeepers diagnosed infestation on samples of adult bees, and only 69% practiced drug rotation. In conclusion, it is only possible to maintain the infestation rate at an acceptable threshold by implementing integrated pest management (IPM) programs and using good beekeeping practices (GBPs).

Essential Oils for a Sustainable Control of Honeybee Varroosis.

The Varroa destructor parasite is the main obstacle to the survival of honey bee colonies. Pest control mainly involves the use of synthetic drugs which, used with the right criteria and in rotation, are able to ensure that infestation levels are kept below the damage threshold. Although these drugs are easy to use and quick to apply, they have numerous disadvantages. Their prolonged use has led to the emergence of pharmacological resistance in treated parasite populations; furthermore, the active ingredients and/or their metabolites accumulate in the beehive products with the possibility of risk for the end consumer. Moreover, the possibility of subacute and chronic toxicity phenomena for adult honeybees and their larval forms must be considered. In this scenario, eco-friendly products derived from plant species have aroused great interest over the years. In recent decades, several studies have been carried out on the acaricidal efficacy of plant essential oils (EOs). Despite the swarming of laboratory and field studies, however, few EO products have come onto the market. Laboratory studies have often yielded different results even for the same plant species. The reason for this discrepancy lies in the various study techniques employed as well as in the variability of the chemical compositions of plants. The purpose of this review is to take stock of the research on the use of EOs to control the V. destructor parasite. It begins with an extensive discussion of the characteristics, properties, and mechanisms of action of EOs, and then examines the laboratory and field tests carried out. Finally, an attempt is made to standardize the results and open up new lines of study in future.

Therapeutic Use of Bee Venom and Potential Applications in Veterinary Medicine.

Apitherapy is a branch of alternative medicine that consists of the treatment of diseases through products collected, processed, and secreted by bees, specifically pollen, propolis, honey, royal jelly, and bee venom. In traditional medicine, the virtues of honey and propolis have been well-known for centuries. The same, however, cannot be said for venom. The use of bee venom is particularly relevant for many therapeutic aspects. In recent decades, scientific studies have confirmed and enabled us to understand its properties. Bee venom has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, central nervous system inhibiting, radioprotective, antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal properties, among others. Numerous studies have often been summarised in reviews of the scientific literature that have focused on the results obtained with mouse models and their subsequent transposition to the human patient. In contrast, few reviews of scientific work on the use of bee venom in veterinary medicine exist. This review aims to take stock of the research achievements in this particular discipline, with a view to a recapitulation and stabilisation in the different research fields.

Pathophysiological Aspects of Muscle Atrophy and Osteopenia Induced by Chronic Constriction Injury (CCI) of the Sciatic Nerve in Rats.

Skeletal muscle atrophy is a condition characterized by a loss of muscle mass and muscle strength caused by an imbalance between protein synthesis and protein degradation. Muscle atrophy is often associated with a loss of bone mass manifesting as osteoporosis. The aim of this study was to evaluate if chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve in rats can be a valid model to study muscle atrophy and consequent osteoporosis. Body weight and body composition were assessed weekly. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was performed on day zero before ligation and day 28 before sacrifice. Catabolic markers were assessed via Western blot and Quantitative Real-time PCR. After the sacrifice, a morphological analysis of the gastrocnemius muscle and Micro-Computed Tomography (Micro-CT) on the tibia bone were performed. Rats that underwent CCI had a lower body weight increase on day 28 compared to the naive group of rats (p < 0.001). Increases in lean body mass and fat mass were also significantly lower in the CCI group (p < 0.001). The weight of skeletal muscles was found to be significantly lower in the ipsilateral hindlimb compared to that of contralateral muscles; furthermore, the cross-sectional area of muscle fibers decreased significantly in the ipsilateral gastrocnemius. The CCI of the sciatic nerve induced a statistically significant increase in autophagic and UPS (Ubiquitin Proteasome System) markers and a statistically significant increase in Pax-7 (Paired Box-7) expression. Micro-CT showed a statistically significant decrease in the bone parameters of the ipsilateral tibial bone. Chronic nerve constriction appeared to be a valid model for inducing the condition of muscle atrophy, also causing changes in bone microstructure and leading to osteoporosis. Therefore, sciatic nerve constriction could be a valid approach to study muscle-bone crosstalk and to identify new strategies to prevent osteosarcopenia.

Phytochemical Composition and Pharmacological Efficacy Evaluation of Calamintha nepeta, Calamintha sylvatica, Lavandula austroapennina and Mentha piperita Essential Oils for the Control of Honeybee (Apis mellifera) Varroosis.

Varroa destructor is currently considered the parasite that causes the greatest damage and economic losses to honeybee farms. Its presence is often associated with that of viral and bacterial pathogens, which ultimately leads to colony collapse. Careful control of the parasitic load is therefore necessary to avoid the onset of these events. Although chemical treatments are often in easily and quickly administered formulations, in recent years, there have been increasingly frequent reports of the onset of drug resistance phenomena, which must lead to reconsidering their use. Furthermore, chemical compounds can easily accumulate in the food matrices of the hive, with possible risks for the final consumer. In such a condition, it is imperative to find alternative treatment solutions. Essential oils (EOs) prove to be promising candidates due to their good efficacy and good environmental biodegradability. In this study, the acaricidal efficacy of the EOs of Calamintha sylvatica Bromf., Calamintha nepeta Savi, Lavandula austroapennina N.G. Passal. Tundis & Upson and Mentha piperita L., extracted from botanical species belonging to the Lamiaceae family, was evaluated. The test chosen for the evaluation was residual toxicity by contact. The examined EOs were diluted in Acetone to a concentration of 2, 1 and 0.5 mg/mL. At the highest concentration, the EOs demonstrated an acaricidal activity equal to 52% for C. nepeta, 60% for C. sylvatica, 80% for L. austroapennina and 68% for M. piperita. Of the EOs tested, therefore, Lavender proves to be a good candidate for subsequent evaluations in semi-field and field studies.

Phytochemical Profile of Foeniculum vulgare Subsp. piperitum Essential Oils and Evaluation of Acaricidal Efficacy against Varroa destructor in Apis mellifera by In Vitro and Semi-Field Fumigation Tests.

Varroatosis is an important parasitic disease of Apis mellifera caused by the mite Varroa destructor (V. destructor). The parasite is able to transmit numerous pathogens to honeybees which can lead to colony collapse. In recent years, the effectiveness of authorized drug products has decreased due to increasing resistance phenomena. Therefore, the search for alternatives to commercially available drugs is mandatory. In this context, essential oils (EOs) prove to be a promising choice to be studied for their known acaricide properties. In this research work, the acaricide activity of EO vapours isolated from the epigeal part (whole plant) of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare sbps. piperitum) and its three fractions (leaves, achenes and flowers) against V. destructor was evaluated. The effectiveness of fumigation was studied using two methods. The first involved prolonged exposure of mites to oil vapour for variable times. After exposure, the five mites in each replicate were placed in a Petri dish with an Apis mellifera larva. Mortality, due to chronic toxicity phenomena, was assessed after 48 h. The second method aimed to translate the results obtained from the in vitro test into a semi-field experiment. Therefore, two-level cages were set up. In the lower compartment of the cage, a material releasing oil vapours was placed; in the upper compartment, Varroa-infested honeybees were set. The results of the first method showed that the increase in mortality was directly proportional to exposure time and concentration. The whole plant returned 68% mortality at the highest concentration (2 mg/mL) and highest exposure time (48 h control), while the leaves, achenes and flowers returned 64%, 52% and 56% mortality, respectively. In the semi-field experiment, a concentration up to 20 times higher than the one used in the in vitro study was required for the whole plant to achieve a similar mite drop of >50%. The results of the study show that in vitro tests should only be used for preliminary screening of EO activity. In vitro tests should be followed by semi-field tests, which are essential to identify the threshold of toxicity to bees and the effective dose to be used in field studies.

Potential New Therapeutic Approaches Based on Punica granatum Fruits Compared to Synthetic Anthelmintics for the Sustainable Control of Gastrointestinal Nematodes in Sheep.

Parasites, in particular, gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) represent one of the main burdens affecting small ruminant farming and pose a serious threat to their health, welfare, productivity, and reproduction. The correct management of animals and the correct use of anthelmintic drugs are the pillars of the GIN control programs for small ruminants. However, globally due to the indiscriminate use of synthetic anthelmintics, there is a significant increase in anthelmintic resistance phenomena to one or more classes of drugs. Even if such a problem never represented a serious threat in southern Italy because of the favourable environmental conditions and because of the good farm management, the phenomenon is actually showing a steep increasing trend and requires alternative treatment measures and constant monitoring. The use of phytotherapies is considered a valuable alternative approach for GIN control in small ruminants and could help with reducing the amount of synthetic drugs used and the forthcoming anthelmintic resistance. From this perspective, the Calabria territory offers a wide number of plants with anthelmintic efficacy that could be helpful for this purpose. The aim of this study was to evaluate the anthelmintic efficacy of aqueous pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) macerate compared to the treatment with Ivermectin and Albendazole in sheep naturally infected with GINs. The pomegranate macerate derives from the ethnoveterinary knowledge of the Calabria region, Southern Italy. The anthelmintic efficacy was evaluated according to the faecal egg count reduction test (FECRt) using the FLOTAC techniques in two sheep farms in Southern Italy. The FECR was calculated from individual samples using the formula FECR = 100 × (1 - [T2/C2]). The treatment with Albendazole in the first farm showed an efficacy of 99.8% after 14 days and 94.8% after 21 days, while the treatment with Ivermectin in the second farm showed an efficacy of 99.9% after 14 days and 96.5% after 21 days of treatment. The pomegranate macerate, in both farms, showed a value of efficacy of around 50% from day 7 to day 21 after the treatment. Previous studies highlighted the presence of gallic acid as the main component in the pomegranate macerate, and its efficacy in nematode control has been as well previously demonstrated in other plant extracts. This in vivo study demonstrated the unequivocal efficacy of plant macerate in easily reducing 50% of the number of GIN eggs in sheep faeces. These results, obtained without the use of synthetic anthelmintics, indicate the use of green veterinary pharmacology as a sustainable alternative to the use of synthetic drugs to reduce the increase in drug resistance phenomena and the environmental impact.

Plants with Antimicrobial Activity Growing in Italy: A Pathogen-Driven Systematic Review for Green Veterinary Pharmacology Applications.

Drug resistance threatening humans may be linked with antimicrobial and anthelmintic resistance in other species, especially among farm animals and, more in general, in the entire environment. From this perspective, Green Veterinary Pharmacology was proven successful for the control of parasites in small ruminants and for the control of other pests such as varroa in bee farming. As in anthelmintic resistance, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) represents one of the major challenges against the successful treatment of infectious diseases, and antimicrobials use in agriculture contributes to the spread of more AMR bacterial phenotypes, genes, and proteins. With this systematic review, we list Italian plants with documented antimicrobial activity against possible pathogenic microbes. Methods: The literature search included all the manuscripts published since 1990 in PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus using the keywords (i) "antimicrobial, plants, Italy"; (ii) "antibacterial, plant, Italy"; (iii) "essential oil, antibacterial, Italy"; (iv) "essential oil, antimicrobial, Italy"; (v) "methanol extract, antibacterial, Italy"; (vi) "methanol extract, antimicrobial, Italy". Results: In total, 105 manuscripts that documented the inhibitory effect of plants growing in Italy against bacteria were included. One hundred thirty-five plants were recorded as effective against Gram+ bacteria, and 88 against Gram-. This will provide a ready-to-use comprehensive tool to be further tested against the indicated list of pathogens and will suggest new alternative strategies against bacterial pathogens to be employed in Green Veterinary Pharmacology applications.