Chronic Inhibition of FAAH Reduces Depressive-Like Behavior and Improves Dentate Gyrus Proliferation after Chronic Unpredictable Stress Exposure.

Symptoms of depressive disorders such as anhedonia and despair can be a product of an aberrant adaptation to stress conditions. Chronic unpredictable stress model (CUS) can generate an increase in the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) and induce a reduction of neurotrophin signaling and the proliferation of neural progenitors in the adult dentate gyrus, together with increased oxidative stress. Levels of the endocannabinoid anandamide (AEA) seem to affect these depression-by-stress-related features and could be modulated by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). We aimed to evaluate the effects of FAAH inhibitor, URB597, on depressive-like behavior and neural proliferation of mice subjected to a model of CUS. URB597 was administered intraperitoneally at a dose of 0.2 mg/kg for 14 days after CUS. Depressive-like behaviors, anhedonia, and despair were evaluated in the splash and forced swimming tests, respectively. Alterations at the HPA axis level were analyzed using the relative weight of adrenal glands and serum corticosterone levels. Oxidative stress and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were also evaluated. Fluorescence immunohistochemistry tests were performed for the immunoreactivity of BrdU and Sox2 colabeling for comparison of neural precursors. The administration of URB597 was able to reverse the depressive-like behavior generated in mice after the model. Likewise, other physiological responses associated with CUS were reduced in the treated group, among them, increase in the relative weight of the adrenal glands, increased oxidative stress, and decreased BDNF and number of neural precursors. Most of these auspicious responses to enzyme inhibitor administration were blocked by employing a cannabinoid receptor antagonist. In conclusion, the chronic inhibition of FAAH generated an antidepressant effect, promoting neural progenitor proliferation and BDNF expression, while reducing adrenal gland weight and oxidative stress in mice under the CUS model.

Crowdsourcing snake identification with online communities of professional herpetologists and avocational snake enthusiasts.

Species identification can be challenging for biologists, healthcare practitioners and members of the general public. Snakes are no exception, and the potential medical consequences of venomous snake misidentification can be significant. Here, we collected data on identification of 100 snake species by building a week-long online citizen science challenge which attracted more than 1000 participants from around the world. We show that a large community including both professional herpetologists and skilled avocational snake enthusiasts with the potential to quickly (less than 2 min) and accurately (69-90%; see text) identify snakes is active online around the clock, but that only a small fraction of community members are proficient at identifying snakes to the species level, even when provided with the snake's geographical origin. Nevertheless, participants showed great enthusiasm and engagement, and our study provides evidence that innovative citizen science/crowdsourcing approaches can play significant roles in training and building capacity. Although identification by an expert familiar with the local snake fauna will always be the gold standard, we suggest that healthcare workers, clinicians, epidemiologists and other parties interested in snakebite could become more connected to these communities, and that professional herpetologists and skilled avocational snake enthusiasts could organize ways to help connect medical professionals to crowdsourcing platforms. Involving skilled avocational snake enthusiasts in decision making could build the capacity of healthcare workers to identify snakes more quickly, specifically and accurately, and ultimately improve snakebite treatment data and outcomes.

Effect of inhibition of fatty acid amide hydrolase on MPTP-induced dopaminergic neuronal damage. / Efecto del inhibidor de amida hidrolasa de ácidos grasos en el daño neuronal dopaminérgico inducido por MPTP.

INTRODUCTION: Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterised by balance problems, muscle rigidity, and slow movement due to low dopamine levels and loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). The endocannabinoid system is known to modulate the nigrostriatal pathway through endogenous ligands such as anandamide (AEA), which is hydrolysed by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). The purpose of this study was to increase AEA levels using FAAH inhibitor URB597 to evaluate the modulatory effect of AEA on dopaminergic neuronal death induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). METHODS: Our study included 4 experimental groups (n = 6 mice per group): a control group receiving no treatment, a group receiving URB597 (0.2mg/kg) every 3 days for 30 days, a group treated with MPTP (30mg/kg) for 5 days, and a group receiving URB597 and subsequently MPTP injections. Three days after the last dose, we conducted a series of behavioural tests (beam test, pole test, and stride length test) to compare motor coordination between groups. We subsequently analysed immunoreactivity of dopaminergic cells and microglia in the SNpc and striatum. RESULTS: Mice treated with URB597 plus MPTP were found to perform better on behavioural tests than mice receiving MPTP only. According to the immunohistochemistry study, mice receiving MPTP showed fewer dopaminergic cells and fibres in the SNpc and striatum. Animals treated with URB597 plus MPTP displayed increased tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity compared to those treated with MPTP only. Regarding microglial immunoreactivity, the group receiving MPTP showed higher Iba1 immunoreactivity in the striatum and SNpc than did the group treated with URB597 plus MPTP. CONCLUSION: Our results show that URB597 exerts a protective effect since it inhibits dopaminergic neuronal death, decreases microglial immunoreactivity, and improves MPTP-induced motor alterations.

Comparative Hemolymph Proteomic and Enzymatic Analyses of Two Strains of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus Ticks Resistant and Susceptible to Ixodicides.

The cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus is one of the most harmful ectoparasites affecting bovines worldwide. It represents a major threat to livestock industry due to the economic losses caused and diseases associated with these ticks. The most important tick control strategy has been the use of ixodicides, resulting in chemically resistant tick populations. It is necessary to understand the mechanisms that result in resistance so as to create new strategies increasing the lifespan of ixodicides or finding alternative targets to produce new acaricides. In this paper, in order to obtain an insight into the mechanisms that govern ixodicides resistance, we will compare the hemolymph proteome of two tick R. microplus strains, one susceptible (MJ) and one resistant (SA) to ixodicides, using HPLC and 2D electrophoresis. Significant differences were found in protein content between strains using HPLC. 2D electrophoresis revealed that 68 hemolymph protein spots were common between strains; however, 26 spots were unique to the susceptible strain MJ and 5 to the resistant strain SA. The most distinctive protein spots on the preparative gels were selected for further analyses. Nine protein spots were identified by mass fingerprinting, revealing proteins that may have a role in the ixodicides resistance or susceptibility. In this paper, we present the tick hemolymph proteome revealing a set of proteins which suggest a possible role in tick detoxification.

Influencia de la densidad de árboles de Leucaena en la producción lechera y nitrógeno ureico en vacas F1 Gyr x Holstein / Influence of density of Leucaena trees on milk production and urea nitrogen in F1 Gyr x Holstein cows

RESUMEN El objetivo de esta investigación fue evaluar la composición bromatológica, la selectividad animal, el consumo parcial, la producción lechera y la concentración de nitrógeno ureico en sangre y leche en vacas lecheras F1 (Gyr X Holstein) en sistemas silvopastoriles con diferentes densidades de árboles de Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala). El estudio se realizó en La Hacienda el Chaco, Tolima (Colombia). Los tratamientos fueron: Ti: pastura de Cynodon nlemfluensis sin arboles; T2: C. nlemfluensis + 1264 árboles/ha de L. leucocephala; T3: C. nlemfluensis + 4255 árboles/ha de L. leucocephala y T4: C. nlemfluensis + 9899 árboles/ha de L. leucocephala. Se evaluaron 4 periodos experimentales de 32 días cada uno y se utilizaron 16 vacas lecheras F1 (Gyr X Holstein). Se observaron diferencias (P < 0,05) en el contenido de materia seca entre C. nlemfluensis y L. leucocephala. Además, se observó alta selectividad de las vacas por la gramínea (P < 0,05). El consumo de materia seca total disminuyó con el aumento en la densidad de árboles de L. leucocephala únicamente en el periodo 3 (P < 0,05). A medida que aumentó la densidad de árboles de L. leucocephala los valores de nitrógeno ureico en sangre y leche aumentaron (P < 0,05). La producción lechera no se alteró por los tratamientos. Se concluye que las vacas F1 (Gyr X Holstein) en sistemas silvopastoriles tienen una alta selectividad y consumo parcial de la gramínea, y niveles más altos de nitrógeno ureico en sangre y leche.

ABSTRACT The objective of this research was to evaluate the chemical composition, selectivity, partial intake, milk production and concentration of urea nitrogen in blood and milk in F1 (Gyr x Holstein) dairy cows on silvopastoral systems with different densities of Leucaena leucocephala trees. The study was carried out in the Chaco Farm, Tolima (Colombia). The treatments were: T1: Cynodon nlemfluensis pasture without trees; T2: C. nlemfluensis + 1264 trees/ha of L. leucocephala; T3: C. nlemfluensis + 4255 trees/ha of L. leucocephala and T4: C. nlemfluensis + 9899 trees/ha of L. leucocephala. Four experimental periods of 32 days each were evaluated and 16 F1 (Gyr x Holstein) cows were used. Differences (P < 0.05) were observed in the dry matter content between C. nlemfluensis and L. leucocephala. Further, there was high selectivity of the cows for the grass (P < 0.05). Dry matter intake decreased with the increase in density of L. leucocephala trees in period 3 only (P < 0.05). As the density of L. leucocephala trees increased, the values of urea nitrogen in blood and milk increased (P < 0.05). Milk production was not different among any of the treatments. It is concluded that F1 (Gyr X Holstein) cows in silvopastoral systems show high selectivity and partial intake of grass, and higher levels of blood and milk urea nitrogen.

Olfactory bulb plasticity ensures proper olfaction after severe impairment in postnatal neurogenesis.

The olfactory bulb (OB) neurons establish a complex network that ensures the correct processing of the olfactory inputs. Moreover, the OB presents a lifelong addition of new neurons into its existing circuitry. This neurogenesis is considered essential for the OB function. However, its functional impact on physiology and behavior is still unclear. Here, we investigate the mechanisms of OB plasticity that underlie bulbar physiology in relation to severe damage of neurogenesis. The neurogenesis of young mice was altered by ionizing radiation. Afterwards, both multi-channel olfactometry and electrophysiological studies were performed. Furthermore, neurogenesis and differentiation of the newly formed cells were assessed using bromodeoxyuridine labeling combined with a wide battery of neuronal markers. Our results demonstrate a reduction in both neurogenesis and volume of the OB in irradiated animals. The number of neuroblasts reaching the OB was reduced and their differentiation rate into interneurons selectively changed; some populations were noticeably affected whereas others remained preserved. Surprisingly, both olfactory detection and discrimination as well as electrophysiology presented almost no alterations in irradiated mice. Our findings suggest that after damaging postnatal neurogenesis, the neurochemical fate of some interneurons changes within a new biological scenario, while maintaining homeostasis and olfaction.

Reflexión crítica epistemológica sobre métodos mixtos en investigación de enfermería / Epistemological critical reflection on nursing research mixed methods / Reflexão crítica e epistemológica sobre métodos mistos em pesquisa de enfermagem

La justificación del uso de métodos mixtos es para dar explicación de un fenómeno cuando un enfoque u otro no alcanzan a resolver la problemática planteada. El objetivo es reflexionar sobre los métodos mixtos desde una perspectiva epistemológica y paradigmática de los enfoques que los integran. Los paradigmas que sustentan la investigación cualitativa es el comprensivo mientras que para la cuantitativa es el explicativo. Desde la epistemología de la investigación ambos enfoques poseen características distintas que pueden abonar a un fenómeno por caminos distintos. En realidad un fenómeno puede ser estudiado desde ambos enfoques y al final se puede complementar bajo miradas fundamentadas en los propios paradigmas que los sustentan. Basado en esta reflexión paradigmática de los diseños y en asumir que hay distintos caminos para acercarse a la realidad, se aboga a favor de los diseños complementarios; cada uno con su propio sustento paradigmático y con aporte a la comprensión del fenómeno desde su perspectiva.

The purpose of the use of mixed methods is to give an explanation of a phenomenon when other methods fail to reveal the nature of it. The objective is to reflect on mixed methods from an epistemological and paradigmatic perspective of their integrated focuses. The paradigms which sustain qualitative and quantitative research are the comprehensive and the explicative respectively. From the epistemology of research, both focuses have distinctive characteristics which can address the phenomenon of study from different routes. Moreover, a phenomenon can be studied with both focuses since they can complement each other under their sustaining paradigms. Based on this paradigmatic reflection, and considering that there are different forms to approaching reality, it is possible to favor those designs which are complementary; each with its own sustenance and paradigmatic contribution to the understanding of the phenomenon from their perspective.

A justificação do uso de métodos mistos é dar explicação de um fenómeno quando uma abordagem u outra não atingem a resolver a problemática proposta. O objetivo é refletir sobre os métodos mistos desde a perspectiva epistemológica e paradigmática das abordagens que os integram. Os paradigmas que sustentam a pesquisa qualitativa é o compreensivo, enquanto para a qualitativa é o explicativo. Desde a epistemologia da pesquisa ambas as abordagens possuem caraterísticas diferentes que podem defender a um fenómeno com caminhos diferentes. Na realidade um fenómeno pode ser estudado desde ambas abordagens e no final pode-se complementar sob olhares fundamentados nos próprios paradigmas que os sustentam. Baseado nesta reflexão paradigmática dos desenhos e considerando que há diferentes caminhos para se aproximar à realidade, fala-se a favor dos desenhos complementários; cada um com seu sustento paradigmático para a compreensão do fenómeno desde sua perspectiva.

Un mayor índice de comorbilidad de Charlson se relaciona con características más agresivas de los tumores vesicales de novo / A higher Charlson comorbidity index is related to more aggressive characteristics in de novovesical tumours

Objetivo: Analizar la relación entre el índice de comorbilidad de Charlson ajustado por edad (ICCa) y los resultados anatomopatológicos de las resecciones transuretrales (RTU) de tumores vesicales (TV) de novo. Material y métodos: Se recogieron los datos de 208 pacientes que, entre 2007 y 2008, fueron tratados mediante una RTU de un TV de novo. Se recogieron las variables edad, género, consumo de tabaco, comorbilidades evaluadas según el ICCa (puntuación y tasa de mortalidad), estadio patológico, grado tumoral y riesgo de recurrencia y progresión. Se analizó la relación entre las variables preoperatorias y las características patológicas finales. Se realizó el estudio multivariante con aquellas variables significativas (p < 0,05) en el análisis univariante. Resultados: La edad media fue 69,5 ± 12. Un 77% fueron hombres. El ICCa medio fue 6,4 ± 2,5. El resultado anatomopatológico final mostró un Tx, T0, Ta, T1 y T≥2 en el 5,3; 6,7; 31,7; 26,9 y 28,8%, respectivamente. El 33,3% fueron de bajo grado y el 66,7% de alto grado. Un 14,3% se asoció con CIS. Entre los TV no músculo invasivos, el 34,7% fueron de bajo riesgo de recurrencia y progresión, el 18,1% intermedio y el 47,2% de alto riesgo. Los pacientes con un ICCa igual o superior a 5 presentaron un mayor número de TV músculo invasivos (RR: 2,29; 1,1-4,8; p = 0,032), de tumores de alto grado (RR 3,1; IC: 1.6-6; p = 0,001) y de tumores de alto riesgo de recurrencia y progresión (RR: 2,9; IC: 1,4-5,9; p < 0,001). Conclusión: El ICCa está relacionado con las características patológicas de los TV de novo. Pacientes con mayor comorbilidad pueden presentar tumores más agresivos, por lo que el ICCa podría ser útil en la práctica clínica al identificar a pacientes con peor pronóstico

Objective: To analyze the relationship between the age - adjusted Charlson Comorbidity Index (aCCI) and pathological outcomes of transurethral resection of de novo bladder tumours (BT). Material and methods: Data from 208 patients who underwent a transurethral resection (TUR) of a de novo BT between 2007 and 2008 were collected. We recorded the following variables: age, sex, tobacco consumption, comorbidities assessed according to the ICCa (score and mortality rate), disease stage, tumour grade and risk of recurrence and progression. The relationship between the preoperative variables and the final pathological characteristics was analyzed. The multivariate study was conducted with the significant variables (P<.05) from the univariate analysis. Results: The mean age of the patients was 69.5 ± 12 years, and 77% were men. The mean ICCa was 6.4 ± 2.5. The final pathology results showed a Tx, T0, Ta, T1 and T ≥2 in 5.3, 6.7, 31.7, 26.9, and 28.8% of the cases, respectively. 33.3% of the tumours were low-grade and 66.7% were high-grade. 14.3% of the tumours were associated with carcinoma in situ. Among those non musculo-invasive bladder tumour (non-MIBT), 34.7% had a low risk of recurrence and progression, 18.1% had an intermediate risk and 47.2% had a high risk. The patients with a ICCa ≥5 had an increased number of MIBT (RR: 2.29; 1.1-4.8; P=.032), high-grade tumours (RR: 3.1; CI: 1.6-6; P=.001) and tumours with a high risk of recurrence and progression (RR: 2.9; CI: 1.4-5.9; P<.001). Conclusion: The ICCa is related to the pathological characteristics of de novo BT. Patients with greater comorbidity can present more aggressive tumours. The ICCa could therefore be useful in clinical practice for identifying patients with worse prognosis

A higher Charlson comorbidity index is related to more aggressive characteristics in de novo vesical tumours.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the relationship between the age--adjusted Charlson Comorbidity Index (aCCI) and pathological outcomes of transurethral resection of de novo bladder tumours (BT). MATERIAL AND METHODS: Data from 208 patients who underwent a transurethral resection (TUR) of a de novo BT between 2007 and 2008 were collected. We recorded the following variables: age, sex, tobacco consumption, comorbidities assessed according to the ICCa (score and mortality rate), disease stage, tumour grade and risk of recurrence and progression. The relationship between the preoperative variables and the final pathological characteristics was analyzed. The multivariate study was conducted with the significant variables (P<.05) from the univariate analysis. RESULTS: The mean age of the patients was 69.5 ± 12 years, and 77% were men. The mean ICCa was 6.4 ± 2.5. The final pathology results showed a Tx, T0, Ta, T1 and T ≥ 2 in 5.3, 6.7, 31.7, 26.9, and 28.8% of the cases, respectively. 33.3% of the tumours were low-grade and 66.7% were high-grade. 14.3% of the tumours were associated with carcinoma in situ. Among those non musculo-invasive bladder tumour (non-MIBT), 34.7% had a low risk of recurrence and progression, 18.1% had an intermediate risk and 47.2% had a high risk. The patients with a ICCa ≥ 5 had an increased number of MIBT (RR: 2.29; 1.1-4.8; P=.032), high-grade tumours (RR: 3.1; CI: 1.6-6; P=.001) and tumours with a high risk of recurrence and progression (RR: 2.9; CI: 1.4-5.9; P<.001). CONCLUSION: The ICCa is related to the pathological characteristics of de novo BT. Patients with greater comorbidity can present more aggressive tumours. The ICCa could therefore be useful in clinical practice for identifying patients with worse prognosis.

Population Dynamics of Anastrepha ludens (Loew) (Diptera: Tephritidae) on Citrus Areas in Southern Tamaulipas, Mexico.

An analysis of adult population fluctuation of Anastrepha ludens (Loew) was performed in southern Tamaulipas, Mexico from 2008 to 2011. The aim was to analyze population dynamics of A. ludens and its relationships with climatic factors in the citrus region of Llera, Tamaulipas, Mexico. Population densities were weekly examined to identify variation through the year and study period. Four periods were identified according to population size, amplitude, host availability and season of the year. The correlation between population density vs. rainfall and temperature (average, minimum and maximum) was determined by linear and multiple regression analyses. Simple linear regression analysis showed that population density with minimum temperature and rainfall was the most consistent correlation, whereas in multiple regression analysis, rainfall and maximum temperature showed more consistency. A seasonal association between the availability of commercial host, climatic variation, and population peaks of A. ludens was determined. This study may have practical implications for the design of specific control strategies, monitoring, and infestation prevention based on different phases of the pest through the year. This strategy, along with the area-wide approach implemented by the Plant Protection Service may lead to an optimization of material, financial and human resources.

Estimating medical costs of work-related diseases in the Basque Country (2008).

OBJECTIVES: To estimate the medical costs of work-attributable diseases (WAD) treated by the public health care system for one of the Spanish Autonomous Communities, the Basque Country, in 2008. METHODS: We calculated the burden of disease attributable to work for each category of diseases according to ICD-9-CM by using estimates of attributable fractions. Hospital and specialized outpatient care cost data were derived from the Spanish National Health System analytical accountability system. Secondary sources of information were used to estimate primary health care and drug prescriptions. RESULTS: Direct costs of work-attributable diseases borne by the Basque Regional Health Service totalled 106 million Euros in 2008, representing 3.3% of Basque public expenditures on health and 0.16% of Basque GDP in 2008. Specialized care, including hospitalizations, absorbed the highest proportion of costs (52%), followed by drug prescriptions and primary health care (27% and 21%, respectively). Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissues accounted for 47.3% of total costs, followed by cardiovascular diseases (19.6%) and cancer (15%). CONCLUSIONS: Occupational diseases and accidents are costly in the Basque Region of Spain, generating a severe deviation of public expenditures and overburdening of the Public Health System because they should really be the responsibility of the Social Security System. Proper identification and assignment of costs of work-related diseases would result in significant savings for the National Health System (Spanish and European), would provide an incentive for the prevention of these avoidable causes of illness and thus contribute to the sustainability of social systems.

Sacrocolpopexia laparoscópica para el tratamiento del prolapso apical: resultados y seguimiento a largo plazo / Laparoscopic sacrocolpopexy for apical prolapse

Objetivos: Evaluar los resultados subjetivos, anatómicos y funcionales a largo plazo de las pacientes sometidas a sacrocolpopexia laparoscópica para manejo de prolapso apical. Métodos: Estudio observacional con pacientes a quienes se les hizo sacrocolpopexia laparoscópica entre febrero de 2006 y diciembre de 2012, en tres centros. El nivel de soporte del piso pélvico se midió mediante la escala de cuantificación del prolapso de órganos pélvicos (POP-Q). Los resultados funcionales se evaluaron mediante un cuestionario de síntomas intestinales, urinarios, sexuales y de molestias físicas. También se estimó la satisfacción global de las pacientes con una escala de uno a diez. Resultados: Se realizó sacrocolpopexia laparoscópica a 68 pacientes, pero el seguimiento fue posible sólo en 24. Ninguna paciente tuvo prolapso apical postoperatorio. El punto C medio del POP-Q fue -6,8 cm. Se observó mejoría importante con respecto a los síntomas subjetivos de prolapso con reducciones significativas en las puntuaciones del cuestionario en el seguimiento postoperatorio. La satisfacción fue en promedio de 9,1. La incontinencia urinaria preoperatoria se resolvió en el 35 por ciento de las que la reportaron, sin necesidad de cirugía de continencia concomitante. No hubo complicaciones a corto plazo. A largo plazo hubo una hernia incisional en el sitio del trocar y una obstrucción intestinal por la malla. Conclusión: La sacrocolpopexia laparoscópica es un tratamiento quirúrgico seguro y eficaz para el prolapso apical post-histerectomía. Proporciona un excelente soporte apical y buen nivel de satisfacción, con una mejoría general de los síntomas de prolapso.

Objective: To evaluate the long-term subjective, anatomical and functional outcomes after laparoscopic sacrocolpopexy for apical prolapse. Methods: An observational study of women undergoing laparoscopic sacrocolpopexy between February 2006 and December 2012 was undertaken, at three centers. Pelvic organ support was assessed objectively using the pelvic organ prolapse quantification scale (POP-Q). Functional outcomes were assessed using a questionnaire of bowel, urinary, sexual and physical discomfort symptoms postoperatively. Also was assessed the overall satisfaction of surgery with a scale of one to ten. Results: During the period of the study, sacrocolpopexy was done in 68 patients, but follow-up was possible only in 24. At a mean follow up of 34 months, all 24 women had stage 0 vault support with point C of the POP-Q score averaging -6.8 cm. Subjective improvements in prolapse symptoms were observed with significant reductions in the questionnaire scores. The satisfaction measured with visual scale averaged 9.1. Fifteen women reported stress urinary incontinence before sacrocolpopexy, and it was resolved in 35 percent without concomitant continence surgery. New onset incontinence was reported in two women. There were no intraoperative and perioperative complications. The long term complications were an incisional hernia on the trocar port site and bowel obstruction caused by the mesh that needed intestinal resection. Conclusions: Laparoscopic sacrocolpopexy is a safe and effective surgical treatment for post-hysterectomy apical prolapse. It provides excellent apical support and good level of satisfaction, with overall improvement in prolapse symptoms.

The olfactory system as a puzzle: playing with its pieces.

The mammalian olfactory bulb (OB) has all the features of a whole mammalian brain but in a more reduced space: neuronal lamination, sensory inputs, afferences, or efferences to other centers of the central nervous system, or a contribution of new neural elements. Therefore, it is widely considered as "a brain inside the brain." Although this rostral region has the same origin and general layering as the other cerebral cortices, some distinctive features make it very profitable in experimentation in neurobiology: the sensory inputs are driven directly on its surface, the main output can be accessed anatomically, and new elements appear in it throughout adult life. These three morphological characteristics have been manipulated to analyze further the response of the whole OB. The present review offers a general outlook into the consequences of such experimentation in the anatomy, connectivity and neurochemistry of the OB after (a) sensory deprivation, mainly by naris occlusion; (b) olfactory deinnervation by means of olfactory epithelium damage, olfactory nerve interruption, or even olfactory tract disruption; (c) the removal of the principal neurons of the OB; and (d) management of the arrival of newborn interneurons from the rostral migratory stream. These experiments were performed using surgical or chemical methods, but also by means of the analysis of genetic models, some of whose olfactory components are missing, colorless or mismatching within the wild-type scenario of odor processing.

Estructura y función de las subunidades del receptor a glutamato tipo NMDA / Structure and function of NMDA-type glutamate receptor subunits

Introducción: Realizar una revisión de la fisiología de las subunidades del receptor a glutamato tipo N-metil-D-aspartato (NMDA). Desarrollo: El acido glutámico (Glu) es el principal neurotransmisor excitador del sistema nervioso central la cual interactúa con dos tipos de receptores clasificados como: metabotrópicos y ionotrópicos. Los receptores ionotrópicos se dividen de acuerdo a la afinidad de sus agonistas específicos en: N-metil-D-aspartato (NMDA), ácido α-amino-3-hidroxi-5-metil-4-isoxazol (AMPA) y acido kaínico (KA). Los receptores NMDA son estructuras macromoleculares que se forman por combinaciones de diferentes subunidades: NMDAR1 (NR1), NMDAR2 (NR2) y (NR3). Conclusiones:El estudio de este receptor ha sido de gran interés por la función que desempeña en la plasticidad sináptica, pero sobre todo por la permeabilidad que tiene para el ion Ca++. En esta revisión se analiza la composición molecular del receptor NMDA, así como las distintas variantes de edición de la subunidad NR1 que en asociación con la subunidad NR2 forman el principal dímero de este receptor. La composición, estructura y funcionalidad y sus distintos patrones de expresión tanto temporal y espacial, ha permitido conocer la versatilidad y la diversidad funcional tanto de las diferentes isoformas de la subunidad NR1, así como las distintas propiedades farmacológicas de la subunidad NR2 (AU)

Introducion: To review the physiology of the glutamate receptor subunits such as N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA). Development:Glutamic acid (Glu) is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system which interacts with two types classified into two types: metabotropic and ionotropic. Ionotropic receptors are classified according to the affinity of their specific agonists: N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), α-amino acid-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole (AMPA) and kainic acid (KA). NMDA receptors are macromolecular structures that are formed by different combinations of subunits, NMDAR1 (NR1), NMDAR2 (NR2) and NMDAR3 (NR3). Conclusions: The study of this receptor has been of great interest due to its role in synaptic plasticity, but mainly due to the permeability it has to Ca++ ion. This review examines the molecular composition of NMDA receptor and the variants of NR1 subunit edition in association with NR2 subunit dimer, the main form of this receptor. The composition, structure and function and their distinct expression patterns in both time and space, has shown the versatility and diversity of functionally different isoforms of the NR1 subunit and various pharmacological properties of the NR2 subunit (AU)

[Structure and function of NMDA-type glutamate receptor subunits]. / Estructura y función de las subunidades del receptor a glutamato tipo NMDA.

INTRODUCTION: To review the physiology of the glutamate receptor subunits such as N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA). DEVELOPMENT: Glutamic acid (Glu) is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system which interacts with two types classified into two types: metabotropic and ionotropic. Ionotropic receptors are classified according to the affinity of their specific agonists: N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), α-amino acid-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole (AMPA) and kainic acid (KA). NMDA receptors are macromolecular structures that are formed by different combinations of subunits, NMDAR1 (NR1), NMDAR2 (NR2) and NMDAR3 (NR3) CONCLUSIONS: The study of this receptor has been of great interest due to its role in synaptic plasticity, but mainly due to the permeability it has to Ca(++) ion. This review examines the molecular composition of NMDA receptor and the variants of NR1 subunit edition in association with NR2 subunit dimer, the main form of this receptor. The composition, structure and function and their distinct expression patterns in both time and space, has shown the versatility and diversity of functionally different isoforms of the NR1 subunit and various pharmacological properties of the NR2 subunit.

Drying eggs to inhibit bacteria: Incubation during laying in a cavity nesting passerine.

Early incubation has been suggested as a defensive adaptation against potentially pathogenic bacteria colonizing avian eggshells in the wild. The inhibitory mechanisms underlying this adaptation are poorly understood and only recent experimental evidence demonstrates that keeping eggs dry is a proximate mechanism for the antimicrobial effects of avian incubation. We estimated partial incubation (the bouts of incubation that some birds perform during the egg-laying period, days of lay 3-5 in our population) intensity of female pied flycatchers breeding in nest-boxes using data loggers that allowed a precise measurement of temperature just between the eggs in the nest-cup. We also measured relative humidity within the nest-boxes and related it to incubation intensity, showing that more intense incubation during laying contributes to drying the air near the eggs. We analyzed separately the effects of incubation and of relative humidity on loads of three types of culturable bacteria known to be present on eggshells, heterotrophic bacteria, Gram-negative enterics and pseudomonads. Our results show an association of early incubation with an inhibition of bacterial proliferation through a drying effect on eggshells, as we found that incubation intensity was negatively and relative humidity positively associated with eggshell bacterial loads for heterotrophic bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria and pseudomonads, although the significance of these associations varied between bacterial groups. These results point to microclimatically driven effects of incubation on bacterial proliferation on eggshells during laying in a temperate cavity nesting passerine.

Cadmium, lead and zinc concentrations in water, sediment and oyster (Crassostrea virginica) of San Andres Lagoon, Mexico.

The spatial distribution of cadmium, lead and zinc concentrations in water, sediment and oysters from San Andres Lagoon was evaluated. Significantly higher cadmium (0.33 mg L(-1)) and lead (0.70 mg L(-1)) concentrations in water were observed in front of the mouth of Tigre river, whereas, zinc concentration (5.0 mg L(-1)) was significantly higher in the south part of the lagoon. Similarly, lead and zinc values in sediment (1.01 and 9.29 µg g(-1), respectively) and oyster tissue (0.86 and 3.19 µg g(-1), respectively) were significantly higher in the south part of the lagoon. Levels of cadmium and lead in oyster tissue were positively related to those found in sediment. However, concerning zinc no evident relationship was found. Such differences in regression analyses may be explained by differential bioaccumulation of xenobiotic (cadmium, lead) and essential (zinc) metals.

Histerectomía laparoscópica total: manejo ambulatorio: experiencia Clínica del Prado, Medellín, Colombia / Outpatient total laparoscopic hysterectomy

Objetivo: Describir los resultados de la histerectomía laparoscópica total ambulatoria. Método: Se analizan 297 pacientes sometidas a histerectomía laparoscópica total y que fueron dadas de alta luego de la recuperación anestésica, entre mayo de 2007 y marzo de 2008. Se requería una puntuación de menos de 5 en la escala visual análoga del dolor para el alta. Resultados: El promedio de edad fue de 42 años, el tiempo quirúrgico de 79,1 minutos, el sangrado estimado fue de 37,1 ml, el tiempo promedio de estancia total fue de 9,4 horas con un tiempo promedio de estancia postoperatoria de 5,4 horas. La tasa de complicaciones postoperatorias fue de 11,8 por ciento y la de readmisiones del 3,3 por ciento. El promedio de Escala Visual Análoga del dolor para la primera noche fue de 4,2 puntos. El 6 por ciento de las pacientes presentaron vómitos en su domicilio. El 99 por ciento de las pacientes recomendarían este tipo de manejo. Conclusiones: El manejo ambulatorio después de histerectomía laparoscópica total es posible, seguro y bien evaluado por las pacientes. Este manejo no conlleva un mayor riesgo de complicaciones y la tasa de readmisiones es baja.

Objective: To describe the results of a group of patients in which total laparoscopic hysterectomy was done as an outpatient procedure. Methods: We included 297 patients who were undergone to laparoscopic total hysterectomy, and were discharge to their home after recovery of anesthesia from may 2007 to march 2008. It was necessary to have a punctuation less than 5 in the analogue visual scale to be sent at home. Results: Mean age was 42 years, surgical time 79.1 minutes, estimated blood loss 37.1 ml, overall length of stay 9.4 hours, postoperative length of stay 5.4 hours. Postoperative complication rate was 11.8 percent, readmission rate was 3.3 percent. Mean VAS Score for pain during the first night was 4.2 points; 6 percent of patients vomited at home. Mean VAS Score for satisfaction with ambulatory management was 9.5, and 99 percent of the patients would recommend this type of management. Conclusions: Ambulatory management after total laparoscopic hysterectomy is possible, safe and well evaluated by patients. It does not impose a higher risk of complications and readmission rate is low.