Differences between risk perception and risk-taking are related to impulsivity levels

Background: Although there is broad agreement that perceived risks determine risk-taking behavior, previous research has shown that this association may not be as straightforward as expected. The main objective of this study was to investigate if the levels of impulsivity can explain part of these controversial findings.Method: A total of 1579 participants (Mage = 23.06, from 18 to 60 years; 69.4% women) were assessed for levels of risk perception, risk-taking avoidance, and impulsivity.Results: The results showed that while impulsivity was significantly and negatively related to both risk perception and risk-taking avoidance, the relationship with risk-taking avoidance was significantly stronger than with risk perception. The levels of impulsivity predicted risk-taking avoidance even when controlling for risk perception.Conclusions: These findings indicate that impulsivity can differentially affect risk perception and risk-taking. We propose that the stronger influence of impulsivity on risk-taking is due to the greater reliance of risk-taking, compared with risk perception, on automatic processes guided by impulses and emotions. (AU)

Differences between risk perception and risk-taking are related to impulsivity levels.

Background: Although there is broad agreement that perceived risks determine risk-taking behavior, previous research has shown that this association may not be as straightforward as expected. The main objective of this study was to investigate if the levels of impulsivity can explain part of these controversial findings. Method: A total of 1579 participants (Mage = 23.06, from 18 to 60 years; 69.4% women) were assessed for levels of risk perception, risk-taking avoidance, and impulsivity. Results: The results showed that while impulsivity was significantly and negatively related to both risk perception and risk-taking avoidance, the relationship with risk-taking avoidance was significantly stronger than with risk perception. The levels of impulsivity predicted risk-taking avoidance even when controlling for risk perception. Conclusions: These findings indicate that impulsivity can differentially affect risk perception and risk-taking. We propose that the stronger influence of impulsivity on risk-taking is due to the greater reliance of risk-taking, compared with risk perception, on automatic processes guided by impulses and emotions.

Physical fitness and white matter microstructure in children with overweight or obesity: the ActiveBrains project.

Recent studies investigated the association of cardiorespiratory fitness with white matter microstructure in children, yet little work has explored to what extent other components of physical fitness (i.e., muscular or motor fitness) are associated with white matter microstructure. Indeed, this association has not been previously explored in children with overweight/obesity who present a different white matter development. Therefore, we aimed to examine associations between physical fitness components and white matter microstructure in children with overweight/obesity. In total, 104 (10.04 ± 1.15 years old; 43 girls) children were included in this cross-sectional study. Physical fitness was assessed using the ALPHA-fitness test battery. Fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity were derived from diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). No association was found between physical fitness and global DTI metrics (all P > 0.082). Within individual tracts, all associations became non-significant when analyses were adjusted for multiple comparisons. Using the voxel-wise approach, we identified a small cluster in the left lateral frontal lobe where children with greater upper-body muscular fitness showed higher FA (PFWE-corrected = 0.042). Although our results cannot conclude physical fitness is related to white matter microstructure in children with overweight/obesity; those findings indicate that the association of muscular fitness with white matter microstructure might be more focal on frontal areas of the brain, as opposed to global differences.

Neural correlates of risk perception as a function of risk level: An approach to the study of risk through a daily life task.

We are often required to make decisions that can have safe or risky consequences. Evaluating the risk of each possible alternative is an important step before making our final decision. The main goal of the present research was to explore the neural basis of risk perception in a naturalistic context (driving). Twenty-two drivers evaluated the perceived risk in 72 traffic situations (previously categorized by driving instructors) while brain activity was recorded using fMRI. A neural network involving attentional factors, emotional processing, stimulus-response associations, and risk aversion was related to the perception of risks. Given the nature of our task, a more prominent role was played by emotional factors (evaluation of the consequences) than cognitive factors (e.g. probabilistic calculations). Moreover, activation in the insula, inferior frontal gyrus, precentral/postcentral gyrus, inferior parietal gyrus, and temporal and occipital regions linearly increased as a function of risk level. Our findings provide a new step towards understanding the neural processing underlying risk behavior in daily life tasks, which is particularly relevant given the study context and its important practical implications for our society.

Neuroanatomical variations as a function of experience in a complex daily task: A VBM and DTI study on driving experience.

Complex tasks require the learning and integration of multiple cognitive, sensory, and psychomotor skills for correct execution. Driving-related skills are developed step by step through the increase of mileage driven and the accumulation of practice in different traffic situations. The acquisition of these skills should be reflected in the brain structure. However, no previous studies have explored brain structural variations associated with driving experience. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether driving frequency, defined as average annual driving mileage, is related to neuroanatomical variations in gray matter (GM) volume and white matter (WM) integrity using voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and DTI-based fractional anisotropy (FA), respectively. We recruited 83 drivers with variable range of annual driving mileage and controlled for age, sex, handedness, IQ, time since the acquisition of driving license, use of motorcycles/mopeds and bicycles, perceived driving skills, and subjective probability of having an accident. Our results showed variations in white matter FA as a function of mileage driven. Driving experience was related to a significant increase of FA in parts of the right hemisphere superior and inferior longitudinal fasciculus, anterior thalamic radiation, forceps majors, inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, and corticospinal tract. No significant differences were observed in gray matter volumes. FA variations were found in brain regions that have been associated with cognitive, visual, and motor processes necessary for skilled performance in driving. These results suggest that variations in white matter diffusivity can underlie the development of driving skills and safer driving.

Physical fitness and psychological health in overweight/obese children: A cross-sectional study from the ActiveBrains project.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the associations of physical fitness (i.e. cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength, and speed/agility) with psychological distress and psychological well-being in overweight/obese pre-adolescent children. DESIGN: 110 overweight/obese children (10.0±1.1years old, 61 boys) from the ActiveBrains project (http://profith.ugr.es/activebrains) participated in this cross-sectional study. METHODS: Physical fitness was evaluated by the ALPHA battery test. Cardiorespiratory fitness was additionally evaluated by a maximal incremental treadmill. Stress was assessed by the Children's Daily Stress Inventory, anxiety by the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, depression by the Children Depression Inventory, positive affect and negative affect by the Positive and Negative Affect Scale for Children, happiness by the Subjective Happiness Scale, optimism by the Life Orientation Test, and self-esteem by the Rosenberg Self-Esteem questionnaire. Linear regression adjusted for sex and peak height velocity was used to examine associations. RESULTS: Absolute upper-body muscular strength was negatively associated with stress and negative affect (ß=-0.246, p=0.047; ß=-0.329, p=0.010, respectively). Furthermore, absolute lower-body muscular strength was negatively associated with negative affect (ß=-0.301, p=0.029). Cardiorespiratory fitness, expressed by the last completed lap, and relative upper-body muscular strength were positively associated with optimism (ß=0.220, p=0.042; ß=0.240, p=0.017, respectively). Finally, absolute upper-body muscular strength was positively associated with self-esteem (ß=0.362, p=0.003) independently of sex and weight status (p for interactions >0.3), and absolute lower-body muscular strength was also positively associated with self-esteem (ß=0.352, p=0.008). CONCLUSIONS: Muscular strength was associated with psychological distress (i.e. stress and negative affect) and psychological well-being (i.e. optimism and self-esteem) as well as cardiorespiratory fitness was associated with optimism. Therefore, increased levels of physical fitness, specifically muscular strength, could have significant benefits for overweight/obese children psychological health.

Inferior alveolar nerve trajectory, mental foramen location and incidence of mental nerve anterior loop.

OBJECTIVES: Injury of the inferior alveolar nerve (IAN) is a serious intraoperative complication that may occur during routine surgical procedures, such as dental implant placement or extraction of impacted teeth. Thus, the purpose of this study was to analyze the trajectory of the mandibular canal (MC), the location of the mental foramen (MF) and the presence and extension of an anterior loop of the mental nerve (AL). STUDY DESIGN: In this cross-sectional study, a total of 348 CBCTs were analyzed. Distances from MC to the surface of the basal, medial and lateral cortical of the mandible were measured at the level of the second molar, first molar and second premolar. Location of the MF relative to the apices of the premolars, as well as incidence and anterior extent of the AL were also determined. RESULTS: Significant and clinically relevant correlations were found between the position of the MC in women, which was located more caudal (r=-0.219, p=0.007; r=-0.276, p<0.001; right and left, respectively) and lateral (r=-0.274, p=0.001; r=-0.285, p<0.001; right and left, respectively), particularly at the level of the premolars. Additionally, the presence (r=-0.181, p=0.001; r=-0.163, p=0.002; right and left, respectively) and anterior extension (r=-0.180, p=0.009; r=-0.285, p=0.05; right and left, respectively) of the AL was found to be inversely correlated with the age of the patient. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis of a Caucasian population has found that the older the patient, the lower the incidence of the loop and the shorter its anterior extension.

Impact of Maintenance Therapy for the Prevention of Peri-implant Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

At the present time, peri-implantitis has become a global burden that occurs with a frequency from 1% to 47% at implant level. Therefore, we aimed herein at assessing the impact of peri-implant maintenance therapy (PIMT) on the prevention of peri-implant diseases. Electronic and manual literature searches were conducted by 3 independent reviewers using several databases, including MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and Cochrane Oral Health Group Trials Register, for articles up to June 2015 without language restriction. Articles were included if they were clinical trials aimed at demonstrating the incidence of peri-implant diseases under a strict regime or not of PIMT. Implant survival and failure rate were studied as secondary outcomes. A meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the influence of PIMT and other reported variables upon peri-implant diseases. Thirteen and 10 clinical trials were included in the qualitative and quantitative analysis, respectively. Mucositis was affected by history of periodontitis and mean PIMT at implant and patient levels, respectively. Similarly, significant effects of history of periodontal disease were obtained for peri-implantitis for both implant and patient levels. Furthermore, mean PIMT interval was demonstrated to influence the incidence of peri-implantitis at implant but not patient level. PIMT interval showed significance at both levels. For implant survival, implants under PIMT have 0.958 the incident event than those with no PIMT. Within the limitations of the present systematic review, it can be concluded that implant therapy must not be limited to the placement and restoration of dental implants but to the implementation of PIMT to potentially prevent biologic complications and hence to heighten the long-term success rate. Although it must be tailored to a patient's risk profiling, our findings suggest reason to claim a minimum recall PIMT interval of 5 to 6 mo. Additionally, it must be stressed that even in the establishment of PIMT, biologic complications might occur. Thus, patient-, clinical-, and implant-related factors must be thoroughly explored.

Regulación de las modificaciones óseas en la madre durante la gestación / Regulation of bone modifications in the mother during pregnancy

El embarazo constituye un modelo donde se produce el desarrollo del esqueleto fetal en un corto lapso de tiempo. Este logro se lleva a cabo bajo la tutela del propio feto, que gobierna este proceso a través de las señales generadas en la denominada unidad feto-placentaria. El organismo materno sufre un proceso de adaptación donde se produce un drástico reajuste en mecanismos implicados en el recambio óseo. Entre los cambios más evidentes detectables en sangre materna están los incrementos con la edad gestacional de los niveles de calcitriol, de la hormona de crecimiento de origen placentario, del factor de crecimiento similar a la insulina tipo I (IGF-1), de estrógenos, y de prolactina. También aumentan la osteoprotegerina y el ligando activador del receptor del factor nuclear kappa-B (RANKL). El fenómeno conduce a estados transitorios de deterioro óseo, que se alargan hasta que la lactancia concluye. El proceso en su conjunto está todavía insuficientemente explorado. Presentamos una actualización de los cambios que afectan a la madre y de los que tienen su origen en la placenta (AU)

Pregnancy defines a model where the development of the fetal skeleton occurs in a short lapse of time. This achievement is accomplished under the control of the own fetus, who regulates the process through the signals generated in the so-called feto-placental unit. The maternal organism undergoes an adaptation process in which a drastic readjustment of mechanisms involved in the bone turnover takes place. Among the most obvious changes detected in maternal blood there are the increases in calcitriol, placental growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor -1 (IGF-1), estrogens and prolactin. There are also increases in osteoprotegerin and in the ligand of the receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa (RANKL). The phenomenon leads to transitory states of bone deterioration, which extends up to the end of lactation. The whole process is still insufficiently explored. We present an update of the changes affecting the mother and of those that arise in the placenta (AU)

Maltose-conjugated chitosans induce macroscopic gelation of pectin solutions at neutral pH.

Injectable polymer scaffolds are particularly attractive for guided tissue growth and drug/cell delivery with minimally invasive intervention. In the present work, "all-polymeric" gelling systems based on pectins and water-soluble maltose-conjugated chitosans (CM) have been developed. Maltose-conjugated chitosan has been synthesized at three different molar ratios, as evaluated by FITR analysis and fluorimetric titration. A thorough rheological characterization of the blends and their parent solutions has been performed. Macroscopic gelation has been achieved by mixing the high esterification degree pectins with CM at higher maltose grafted to chitosan contents. Gels form in a few minutes and reach their full strength in less than two hours. These features encourage their further development as scaffold for tissue engineering.

Acute myocardial infarct size is related to periodontitis extent and severity.

Cardiovascular disease has been associated with 40% of deaths in high-income countries and 28% in lower-income countries. The relationship between periodontitis and acute myocardial infarction is well documented, but it has not been established whether the extent and severity of periodontitis influence the infarct size. This cross-sectional and analytic study was designed to investigate the association of chronic periodontitis extent and severity with acute myocardial infarct size as indicated by serum cardiac troponin I and myoglobin levels. Sociodemographic, periodontal, cardiologic, and hematologic variables were gathered in 112 consecutive patients with myocardial infarction. The extent (Arbes Index) and severity (Periodontal Inflammatory Severity Index) of the chronic periodontitis were significantly associated with troponin I levels after controlling for sociodemographic and clinical confounders (change in R (2) = .041, p < .02, and R (2) = .031, p = .04). However, only the extent index accounted for levels of myoglobin (change in R (2) = .030, p < .05), total leukocytes (change in R (2) = .041 p < .02), and neutrophils (change in R (2) = .059, p < .01). Mediated regression analysis showed that leukocytes and neutrophils may underlie these observed relationships of chronic periodontitis with troponin I and myoglobin. To our knowledge, this study contributes the first research data demonstrating that the extent and severity of periodontitis is positively associated with acute myocardial infarct size as measured by serum troponin I and myoglobin levels.

Body mass index and myocardium at risk in patients with acute coronary syndrome / Índice de masa corporal y miocardio en riesgo en pacientes con síndrome coronario agudo

Background and objectives. Whilst traditional studies have shown that obese individuals are at a higher risk of cardiovascular events compared to lean subjects, recent studies in patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) have suggested that obesity may exert protective effects (the "obesity paradox"). We sought to assess the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and the BARI score (BARIsc), a validated tool used to assess myocardium at risk, in patients with acute coronary syndrome. Patients and methods. Participants were 116 consecutive patients (mean age, 60.6 years; 97 men) with AMI (68 ST elevated myocardial infarction, STEMI; 48 non-ST elevated myocardial infarction, NSTEMI). Demographics, BMI, risk factors, biochemistry data, left ventricular function, angiographic data and the BARIsc were assessed in every patient. Results. Multiple linear regression analyses showed that BMI significantly correlated with BARIsc; β=.23, p<0.02. This was found only in the overweight/obese patients, β=.27, p<0.01, but not in patients with normal BMIs, β=0.08, p=0.71. Conclusions. An increased body weight is associated with an increased area of myocardium at risk in patients with ACS (AU)

Introducción y objetivos. Algunos estudios han demostrado que los pacientes obesos presentan un mayor riesgo cardiovascular, pero estudios más recientes en pacientes con infarto agudo de miocardio (IAM) han sugerido que la obesidad puede ejercer un efecto protector (efecto conocido como la "paradoja de la obesidad"). Hemos examinado la relación entre el índice de masa corporal (IMC) y la puntuación ofrecida por el BARI (BARIsc), una herramienta validada para determinar la cantidad de miocardio en riesgo en los pacientes con síndrome coronario agudo. Pacientes y métodos. Se incluyeron 116 pacientes de forma consecutiva (edad media, 60.6 años; 97% varones) con IAM (68 con un síndrome coronario agudo con elevación de ST [SCACEST], y 48 con síndrome coronario agudo sin elevación de ST [SCASEST]). En todos ellos se determinaron las variables demográficas y analíticas, los factores de riesgo cardiovascular, el IMC, la función ventricular, los datos angiográficos, y el BARIsc. Resultados. El análisis de regresión lineal múltiple mostró que el IMC se correlacionaba significativamente con el BARIsc, β=,23; p<0,02. Esto se demostró únicamente en los pacientes con sobrepeso u obesidad, β=,27; p<0,01, pero no en los que presentaban IMC normal β=0,08; p=0,71. Conclusiones. El aumento de peso se asocia a la cantidad de miocardio en riesgo en pacientes que con un SCA (AU)

Prosthetic Abutment Height is a Key Factor in Peri-implant Marginal Bone Loss.

In this study, we analyzed the influence of prosthetic abutment height on marginal bone loss (MBL) around implants in the posterior maxilla. In this retrospective cohort study, the radiographically determined MBL was related to the height of the abutments of internal conical connection implants at 6 and 18 months post-loading. Data were gathered on age, sex, bone substratum, smoking habit, history of periodontitis, and prosthetic features, among other variables. A linear mixed model was used for statistical analysis. The study included 131 patients receiving 315 implants. MBL rates at 6 and 18 months were mainly affected by the abutment height but were also significantly influenced by the bone substratum, periodontitis, and smoking habit. MBL rates were higher for prosthetic abutment < 2 mm vs. ≥ 2 mm, for periodontal vs. non-periodontal patients, for grafted vs. pristine bone, and for a heavier smoking habit. The abutment height is a key factor in MBL. MBL rates followed a non-linear trend, with a greater MBL rate during the first 6 months post-loading than during the next 12 months.

Body mass index and myocardium at risk in patients with acute coronary syndrome.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Whilst traditional studies have shown that obese individuals are at a higher risk of cardiovascular events compared to lean subjects, recent studies in patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) have suggested that obesity may exert protective effects (the "obesity paradox"). We sought to assess the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and the BARI score (BARIsc), a validated tool used to assess myocardium at risk, in patients with acute coronary syndrome. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Participants were 116 consecutive patients (mean age, 60.6 years; 97 men) with AMI (68 ST elevated myocardial infarction, STEMI; 48 non-ST elevated myocardial infarction, NSTEMI). Demographics, BMI, risk factors, biochemistry data, left ventricular function, angiographic data and the BARIsc were assessed in every patient. RESULTS: Multiple linear regression analyses showed that BMI significantly correlated with BARIsc; ß=.23, p<0.02. This was found only in the overweight/obese patients, ß=.27, p<0.01, but not in patients with normal BMIs, ß=0.08, p=0.71. CONCLUSIONS: An increased body weight is associated with an increased area of myocardium at risk in patients with ACS.

Adaptation of the Spodoptera exigua Se301 insect cell line to grow in serum-free suspended culture. Comparison of SeMNPV productivity in serum-free and serum-containing media.

Spodoptera exigua Se301 cells have been successfully adapted to two different commercial serum-free media (SFM; Ex-Cell 420 and Serum-Free Insect Medium-1) by gradually reducing the 10 %-added serum-containing medium content from 100 % to 0 % (v/v) in suspended cultures. Both direct adaptation to a serum-free medium and cell growth in the absence of protective additives against fluid dynamic stress [polyvinyl pyrrolidone and polyvinyl alcohol] and disaggregation [dextran sulfate] proved impossible. Cells grew reproducibly in both SFMs once the serum had been completely removed, although the use of Ex-Cell 420 resulted in higher growth rates and cell densities. Turbulence was sufficiently high to reduce growth rates and final cell densities at the highest Reynolds number investigated, although no clear influence of agitation was observed on virus productivity. Both attached and suspended Se301 cell cultures were successfully infected with the SeMNPV baculovirus. Cells adapted to different conditions (attached or suspended culture, serum-containing or serum-free medium) showed different occlusion bodies productivities at the two multiplicities of infection assayed (0.1 and 0.5).

Conductas de riesgo en pacientes con síndrome de apneas¿hipopneas del sueño: estudio exploratorio en situaciones complejas y dinámicas de tráfico simulado / Risk behaviors in patients with sleep apnea syndrome: explorative study in complex and dynamic situations of simulated traffic

Objetivo: Existe un amplio consenso sobre la existencia de una mayor incidencia de accidentes de tráfico en personas con síndrome de apneas‑hipopneas del sueño (SAHS). Sin embargo, algunos aspectos de esta relación están aún por dilucidar. No se ha podido demostrar cuál es la causa probable de esta mayor accidentalidad, existen posibles factores de confusión no controlados y algunos instrumentos de evaluación utilizados poseen una baja validez ecológica. El objetivo del estudio fue analizar la conducta de riesgo en conducción de pacientes con SAHS enun entorno vial virtual realista y con tráfico simulado. Material y métodos: Se evaluó la conducta de riesgo en la conducción mediante el simulador Honda Riding Trainer, en 12 pacientes diagnosticados de SAHS, tratados con presión positiva continua (CPAP), y 12 controles emparejados. También se evaluaron, a través de cuestionarios, la somnolencia diurna en los dos grupos y la fatiga mental y los niveles de activación durante la prueba. Resultados: Aunque los pacientes con SAHS mostraban una mayor somnolencia diurna, no se han mostrado más arriesgados que los controles durante la conducción. No hubo diferencias en fatiga mental o niveles de activación durante la simulación. Conclusiones: A diferencia de los resultados encontrados en los estudios clásicos, cuando la evaluación se realiza con herramientas más ecológicas y la duración de las pruebas es más breve, la ejecución de los pacientes con SAHS tratados con CPAP no difiere de la de los controles. Estos hallazgos apoyan el uso de la CPAP y respaldan la inclusión de pruebas de simulación virtuales para obtener o prorrogar el permiso o licencia de conducir, sobre todo, en poblaciones de riesgo (AU)

Objective: A large consensus exists within the scientific community with regard to the existence of a high incidence of traffic accidents in people with Sleep Apnea Hypopnea Syndrome (SAHS). However, some aspects of this relationship are still in need of clarification. It has not been possible to show the likely cause of this large rate of accidents, there are possible uncontrolled, confounding factors, and some of the evaluation instruments used have low ecological validity. The goal of the study was to analyze risk behavior during driving in patients with SAS, in a virtual reality setting with simulated traffic. Material and methods: Evaluation of risk driving behavior was carried out using the Honda Riding Trainer simulator. The participants were 12 patients diagnosed with SAS, treated with continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), and 12 matched controls. Daytime somnolence, mental fatigue, and levels of activation during the tests, were also evaluated in both groups through the use of questionnaires. Results: Although patients with SAHS showed higher daytime somnolence, they did not exhibit more risk driving behaviors than the control group. There were no differences in mental fatigue or levels of activation during the simulation. Conclusion: Unlike the results found in classical studies, when the evaluation is carried out with more ecological tools and the duration of the tests is much shorter, the performance of patients with SAS treated with CPAP does not differ from that of the control group. These findings support the use of CPAP as well as the testing of drivers using virtual simulations in order to obtain a driver’s license, especially in high risk populations (AU)

The dissociation between the recall of stimulus frequencies and the judgment of contingency allows the placement of the competition effect in the final causal processing stages

In the predictive learning and causal reasoning literature it has beensuggested that the processing of events is under the control of a competitivemechanism. However, little is known about whether the competitivemechanism operates at the encoding or near the response stages. The presentwork suggests that measures based on the recall of frequencies of the cells inthe contingency table could help us in the placement of the competitionprinciple within the processing stages. As the contingency judgment about aconstant symptom-illness relation changed according to the validity of asecond different symptom, we concluded in favour of a competitionmechanism. However, estimated frequencies did not change as a result ofsuch manipulation. This dissociation suggests that the competitivemechanism operates near the response stage rather than at the stimulusencoding period

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Automatic and controlled semantic processing: a masked prime-task effect.

A classical definition of automaticity establishes that automatic processing occurs without attention or consciousness, and cannot be controlled. Previous studies have demonstrated that semantic priming can be reduced if attention is directed to a low-level of analysis. This finding suggests that semantic processing is not automatic since it can be controlled. In this paper, we present two experiments that demonstrate that semantic processing may occur in the absence of attention and consciousness. A negative semantic priming effect was found when a low-level prime-task was required and when a masked lexical decision prime-task was performed (Experiment 1). This paper also discusses the limitations of the inhibitory mechanism involved in negative semantic priming effect.

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Semantic priming in the prime task effect: evidence of automatic semantic processing of distractors.

The automaticity of the semantic processing of words has been questioned because of the reduction of semantic priming when the prime word is processed nonsemantically--for example, in letter search (the prime task effect). In two experiments, prime distractor words produced semantic priming in a subsequent lexical decision task, but with the direction of priming (positive or negative) depending on the prime task. Lexico-semantic tasks produced negative semantic priming, whereas letter search produced positive semantic priming. These results are discussed in terms of task-based inhibition. We argue that, given the results from the distractors, the absence of semantic priming does not indicate an absence of semantic activation but reflects the action of control processes on prepotent responses when less practiced responses are needed.