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1.
Plant Cell Environ ; 2024 Feb 06.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-38321805

RESUMO

Gas exchange measurements enable mechanistic insights into the processes that underpin carbon and water fluxes in plant leaves which in turn inform understanding of related processes at a range of scales from individual cells to entire ecosytems. Given the importance of photosynthesis for the global climate discussion it is important to (a) foster a basic understanding of the fundamental principles underpinning the experimental methods used by the broad community, and (b) ensure best practice and correct data interpretation within the research community. In this review, we outline the biochemical and biophysical parameters of photosynthesis that can be investigated with gas exchange measurements and we provide step-by-step guidance on how to reliably measure them. We advise on best practices for using gas exchange equipment and highlight potential pitfalls in experimental design and data interpretation. The Supporting Information contains exemplary data sets, experimental protocols and data-modelling routines. This review is a community effort to equip both the experimental researcher and the data modeller with a solid understanding of the theoretical basis of gas-exchange measurements, the rationale behind different experimental protocols and the approaches to data interpretation.

2.
Semin Cell Dev Biol ; 155(Pt A): 1-2, 2024 03 01.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-37716907

Assuntos
Fotossíntese
3.
Photosynth Res ; 158(2): 109-120, 2023 Nov.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-37273092

RESUMO

Warming driven by the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is irreversible over at least the next century, unless practical technologies are rapidly developed and deployed at scale to remove and sequester carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Accepting this reality highlights the central importance for crop agriculture to develop adaptation strategies for a warmer future. While nearly all processes in plants are impacted by above optimum temperatures, the impact of heat stress on photosynthetic processes stand out for their centrality. Here, we review transgenic strategies that show promise in improving the high-temperature tolerance of specific subprocesses of photosynthesis and in some cases have already been shown in proof of concept in field experiments to protect yield from high temperature-induced losses. We also highlight other manipulations to photosynthetic processes for which full proof of concept is still lacking but we contend warrant further attention. Warming that has already occurred over the past several decades has had detrimental impacts on crop production in many parts of the world. Declining productivity presages a rapidly developing global crisis in food security particularly in low income countries. Transgenic manipulation of photosynthesis to engineer greater high-temperature resilience holds encouraging promise to help meet this challenge.


Assuntos
Termotolerância , Fotossíntese , Plantas , Temperatura , Produção Agrícola , Dióxido de Carbono
4.
J Exp Bot ; 74(2): 651-663, 2023 01 11.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-36124740

RESUMO

In many plant species, expression of the nuclear encoded Rubisco small subunit (SSu) varies with environmental changes, but the functional role of any changes in expression remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the impact of differential expression of Rubisco SSu isoforms on carbon assimilation in Arabidopsis. Using plants grown at contrasting temperatures (10 °C and 30 °C), we confirm the previously reported temperature response of the four RbcS genes and extend this to protein expression, finding that warm-grown plants produce Rubisco containing ~65% SSu-B and cold-grown plants produce Rubisco with ~65% SSu-A as a proportion of the total pool of subunits. We find that these changes in isoform concentration are associated with kinetic changes to Rubisco in vitro: warm-grown plants produce a Rubisco having greater CO2 affinity (i.e. higher SC/O and lower KC) but lower kcatCO2 at warm measurement temperatures. Although warm-grown plants produce 38% less Rubisco than cold-grown plants on a leaf area basis, warm-grown plants can maintain similar rates of photosynthesis to cold-grown plants at ambient CO2 and 30 °C, indicating that the carboxylation capacity of warm-grown Rubisco is enhanced at warmer measurement temperatures, and is able to compensate for the lower Rubisco content in warm-grown plants. This association between SSu isoform expression and maintenance of Rubisco activity at high temperature suggests that SSu isoform expression could impact the temperature response of C3 photosynthesis.


Assuntos
Arabidopsis , Ribulose-Bifosfato Carboxilase , Temperatura , Ribulose-Bifosfato Carboxilase/metabolismo , Arabidopsis/genética , Arabidopsis/metabolismo , Dióxido de Carbono/metabolismo , Fotossíntese/fisiologia , Plantas/metabolismo , Isoformas de Proteínas/genética , Isoformas de Proteínas/metabolismo
5.
Photosynth Res ; 154(2): 169-182, 2022 Nov.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-36163583

RESUMO

Rubisco activase (Rca) facilitates the catalytic repair of Rubisco, the CO2-fixing enzyme of photosynthesis, following periods of darkness, low to high light transitions or stress. Removal of the redox-regulated isoform of Rubisco activase, Rca-α, enhances photosynthetic induction in Arabidopsis and has been suggested as a strategy for the improvement of crops, which may experience frequent light transitions in the field; however, this has never been tested in a crop species. Therefore, we used RNAi to reduce the Rca-α content of soybean (Glycine max cv. Williams 82) below detectable levels and then characterized the growth, photosynthesis, and Rubisco activity of the resulting transgenics, in both growth chamber and field conditions. Under a 16 h sine wave photoperiod, the reduction of Rca-α contents had no impact on morphological characteristics, leaf expansion rate, or total biomass. Photosynthetic induction rates were unaltered in both chamber-grown and field-grown plants. Plants with reduced Rca-α content maintained the ability to regulate Rubisco activity in low light just as in control plants. This result suggests that in soybean, Rca-α is not as centrally involved in the regulation of Rca oligomer activity as it is in Arabidopsis. The isoform stoichiometry supports this conclusion, as Rca-α comprises only ~ 10% of the Rubisco activase content of soybean, compared to ~ 50% in Arabidopsis. This is likely to hold true in other species that contain a low ratio of Rca-α to Rca-ß isoforms.


Assuntos
Arabidopsis , Ribulose-Bifosfato Carboxilase , Ribulose-Bifosfato Carboxilase/metabolismo , Glycine max/metabolismo , Arabidopsis/metabolismo , Ativador de Plasminogênio Tecidual , Proteínas de Plantas/metabolismo , Fotossíntese/fisiologia , Isoformas de Proteínas , Oxirredução
6.
Plant Biotechnol J ; 20(4): 711-721, 2022 04.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-34786804

RESUMO

Adapting crops to warmer growing season temperatures is a major challenge in mitigating the impacts of climate change on crop production. Warming temperatures drive greater evaporative demand and can directly interfere with both reproductive and vegetative physiological processes. Most of the world's crop species have C3 photosynthetic metabolism for which increasing temperature means higher rates of photorespiration, wherein the enzyme responsible for fixing CO2 fixes O2 instead followed by an energetically costly recycling pathway that spans several cell compartments. In C3 crops like wheat, rice and soybean, photorespiration translates into large yield losses that are predicted to increase as global temperature warms. Engineering less energy-intensive alternative photorespiratory pathways into crop chloroplasts drives increases in C3 biomass production under agricultural field conditions, but the efficacy of these pathways in mitigating the impact of warmer growing temperatures has not been tested. We grew tobacco plants expressing an alternative photorespiratory pathway under current and elevated temperatures (+5 °C) in agricultural field conditions. Engineered plants exhibited higher photosynthetic quantum efficiency under heated conditions than the control plants, and produced 26% (between 16% and 37%) more total biomass than WT plants under heated conditions, compared to 11% (between 5% and 17%) under ambient conditions. That is, engineered plants sustained 19% (between 11% and 21%) less yield loss under heated conditions compared to non-engineered plants. These results support the theoretical predictions of temperature impacts on photorespiratory losses and provide insight toward the optimisation strategies required to help sustain or improve C3 crop yields in a warming climate.


Assuntos
Biodiversidade , Dióxido de Carbono , Dióxido de Carbono/metabolismo , Produtos Agrícolas/fisiologia , Fotossíntese/fisiologia , Temperatura
7.
J Exp Bot ; 72(8): 2822-2844, 2021 04 02.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-33619527

RESUMO

As global land surface temperature continues to rise and heatwave events increase in frequency, duration, and/or intensity, our key food and fuel cropping systems will likely face increased heat-related stress. A large volume of literature exists on exploring measured and modelled impacts of rising temperature on crop photosynthesis, from enzymatic responses within the leaf up to larger ecosystem-scale responses that reflect seasonal and interannual crop responses to heat. This review discusses (i) how crop photosynthesis changes with temperature at the enzymatic scale within the leaf; (ii) how stomata and plant transport systems are affected by temperature; (iii) what features make a plant susceptible or tolerant to elevated temperature and heat stress; and (iv) how these temperature and heat effects compound at the ecosystem scale to affect crop yields. Throughout the review, we identify current advancements and future research trajectories that are needed to make our cropping systems more resilient to rising temperature and heat stress, which are both projected to occur due to current global fossil fuel emissions.


Assuntos
Ecossistema , Fotossíntese , Resposta ao Choque Térmico , Temperatura Alta , Folhas de Planta , Temperatura
9.
Plant Cell Environ ; 43(12): 3033-3047, 2020 12.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-32844407

RESUMO

Ozone pollution is a damaging air pollutant that reduces maize yields equivalently to nutrient deficiency, heat, and aridity stress. Therefore, understanding the physiological and biochemical responses of maize to ozone pollution and identifying traits predictive of ozone tolerance is important. In this study, we examined the physiological, biochemical and yield responses of six maize hybrids to elevated ozone in the field using Free Air Ozone Enrichment. Elevated ozone stress reduced photosynthetic capacity, in vivo and in vitro, decreasing Rubisco content, but not activation state. Contrary to our hypotheses, variation in maize hybrid responses to ozone was not associated with stomatal limitation or antioxidant pools in maize. Rather, tolerance to ozone stress in the hybrid B73 × Mo17 was correlated with maintenance of leaf N content. Sensitive lines showed greater ozone-induced senescence and loss of photosynthetic capacity compared to the tolerant line.


Assuntos
Ozônio/metabolismo , Ribulose-Bifosfato Carboxilase/metabolismo , Zea mays/metabolismo , Adaptação Fisiológica , Ozônio/farmacologia , Fotossíntese , Folhas de Planta/metabolismo , Espécies Reativas de Oxigênio/metabolismo , Estresse Fisiológico , Zea mays/efeitos dos fármacos
10.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A ; 116(37): 18723-18731, 2019 09 10.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-31451644

RESUMO

Arabidopsis Rubisco activase (Rca) is phosphorylated at threonine-78 (Thr78) in low light and in the dark, suggesting a potential regulatory role in photosynthesis, but this has not been directly tested. To do so, we transformed an rca-knockdown mutant largely lacking redox regulation with wild-type Rca-ß or Rca-ß with Thr78-to-Ala (T78A) or Thr78-to-Ser (T78S) site-directed mutations. Interestingly, the T78S mutant was hyperphosphorylated at the Ser78 site relative to Thr78 of the Rca-ß wild-type control, as evidenced by immunoblotting with custom antibodies and quantitative mass spectrometry. Moreover, plants expressing the T78S mutation had reduced photosynthesis and quantum efficiency of photosystem II (ϕPSII) and reduced growth relative to control plants expressing wild-type Rca-ß under all conditions tested. Gene expression was also altered in a manner consistent with reduced growth. In contrast, plants expressing Rca-ß with the phospho-null T78A mutation had faster photosynthetic induction kinetics and increased ϕPSII relative to Rca-ß controls. While expression of the wild-type Rca-ß or the T78A mutant fully rescued the slow-growth phenotype of the rca-knockdown mutant grown in a square-wave light regime, the T78A mutants grew faster than the Rca-ß control plants at low light (30 µmol photons m-2 s-1) and in a fluctuating low-light/high-light environment. Collectively, these results suggest that phosphorylation of Thr78 (or Ser78 in the T78S mutant) plays a negative regulatory role in vivo and provides an explanation for the absence of Ser at position 78 in terrestrial plant species.


Assuntos
Proteínas de Arabidopsis/metabolismo , Arabidopsis/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Fotoperíodo , Fotossíntese/fisiologia , Treonina/metabolismo , Substituição de Aminoácidos/fisiologia , Proteínas de Arabidopsis/genética , Regulação da Expressão Gênica no Desenvolvimento , Regulação da Expressão Gênica de Plantas , Técnicas de Silenciamento de Genes , Mutação , Fosforilação/fisiologia , Complexo de Proteína do Fotossistema II/metabolismo , Plantas Geneticamente Modificadas , Serina/genética , Treonina/genética
11.
Science ; 363(6422)2019 01 04.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-30606819

RESUMO

Photorespiration is required in C3 plants to metabolize toxic glycolate formed when ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase oxygenates rather than carboxylates ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate. Depending on growing temperatures, photorespiration can reduce yields by 20 to 50% in C3 crops. Inspired by earlier work, we installed into tobacco chloroplasts synthetic glycolate metabolic pathways that are thought to be more efficient than the native pathway. Flux through the synthetic pathways was maximized by inhibiting glycolate export from the chloroplast. The synthetic pathways tested improved photosynthetic quantum yield by 20%. Numerous homozygous transgenic lines increased biomass productivity by >40% in replicated field trials. These results show that engineering alternative glycolate metabolic pathways into crop chloroplasts while inhibiting glycolate export into the native pathway can drive increases in C3 crop yield under agricultural field conditions.


Assuntos
Cloroplastos/metabolismo , Glicolatos/metabolismo , Nicotiana/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Nicotiana/metabolismo , Ribulose-Bifosfato Carboxilase/metabolismo , Biomassa , Dióxido de Carbono/metabolismo , Chlamydomonas reinhardtii/enzimologia , Produtos Agrícolas/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Produtos Agrícolas/metabolismo , Cucurbita/enzimologia , Escherichia coli/enzimologia , Regulação da Expressão Gênica de Plantas , Genes Bacterianos , Redes e Vias Metabólicas/genética , Fotossíntese , Plantas Geneticamente Modificadas/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Plantas Geneticamente Modificadas/metabolismo , Interferência de RNA , Ribulosefosfatos/metabolismo , Estresse Fisiológico , Biologia Sintética , Temperatura
12.
J Exp Bot ; 70(1): 231-242, 2019 01 01.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-30403800

RESUMO

Enhancement of Rubisco kinetics could improve photosynthetic efficiency, ultimately resulting in increased crop yield. However, imprecise knowledge of the reaction mechanism and the individual rate constants limits our ability to optimize the enzyme. Membrane inlet mass spectrometry (MIMS) may offer benefits over traditional methods for determining individual rate constants of the Rubisco reaction mechanism, as it can directly monitor concentration changes in CO2, O2, and their isotopologs during assays. However, a direct comparison of MIMS with the traditional radiolabel method of determining Rubisco kinetic parameters has not been made. Here, the temperature responses of Rubisco kinetic parameters from Arabidopsis thaliana were measured using radiolabel and MIMS methods. The two methods provided comparable parameters above 25 °C, but temperature responses deviated at low temperature as MIMS-derived catalytic rates of carboxylation, oxygenation, and CO2/O2 specificity showed thermal breakpoints. Here, we discuss the variability and uncertainty surrounding breakpoints in the Rubisco temperature response and the relevance of individual rate constants of the reaction mechanisms to potential breakpoints.


Assuntos
Arabidopsis/fisiologia , Botânica/métodos , Fotossíntese/fisiologia , Ribulose-Bifosfato Carboxilase/fisiologia , Cinética , Espectrometria de Massas/métodos , Temperatura
13.
J Integr Plant Biol ; 60(12): 1217-1230, 2018 Dec.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-30126060

RESUMO

In C3 plants, photorespiration is an energy-expensive process, including the oxygenation of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) by ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) and the ensuing multi-organellar photorespiratory pathway required to recycle the toxic byproducts and recapture a portion of the fixed carbon. Photorespiration significantly impacts crop productivity through reducing yields in C3 crops by as much as 50% under severe conditions. Thus, reducing the flux through, or improving the efficiency of photorespiration has the potential of large improvements in C3 crop productivity. Here, we review an array of approaches intended to engineer photorespiration in a range of plant systems with the goal of increasing crop productivity. Approaches include optimizing flux through the native photorespiratory pathway, installing non-native alternative photorespiratory pathways, and lowering or even eliminating Rubisco-catalyzed oxygenation of RuBP to reduce substrate entrance into the photorespiratory cycle. Some proposed designs have been successful at the proof of concept level. A plant systems-engineering approach, based on new opportunities available from synthetic biology to implement in silico designs, holds promise for further progress toward delivering more productive crops to farmer's fields.


Assuntos
Ribulose-Bifosfato Carboxilase/metabolismo , Dióxido de Carbono/metabolismo , Produção Agrícola , Produtos Agrícolas/genética , Produtos Agrícolas/metabolismo , Fotossíntese/genética , Fotossíntese/fisiologia , Ribulose-Bifosfato Carboxilase/genética
14.
Nat Commun ; 9(1): 868, 2018 03 06.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-29511193

RESUMO

Insufficient water availability for crop production is a mounting barrier to achieving the 70% increase in food production that will be needed by 2050. One solution is to develop crops that require less water per unit mass of production. Water vapor transpires from leaves through stomata, which also facilitate the influx of CO2 during photosynthetic assimilation. Here, we hypothesize that Photosystem II Subunit S (PsbS) expression affects a chloroplast-derived signal for stomatal opening in response to light, which can be used to improve water-use efficiency. Transgenic tobacco plants with a range of PsbS expression, from undetectable to 3.7 times wild-type are generated. Plants with increased PsbS expression show less stomatal opening in response to light, resulting in a 25% reduction in water loss per CO2 assimilated under field conditions. Since the role of PsbS is universal across higher plants, this manipulation should be effective across all crops.


Assuntos
Produção Agrícola , Complexo de Proteína do Fotossistema II/metabolismo , Proteínas de Plantas/metabolismo , Estômatos de Plantas/metabolismo , Água/metabolismo , Dióxido de Carbono/metabolismo , Cloroplastos/metabolismo , Luz , Fotossíntese , Plantas Geneticamente Modificadas/metabolismo , Nicotiana/metabolismo
15.
Plant Cell ; 29(4): 808-823, 2017 Apr.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-28351992

RESUMO

Photorespiration is an energy-intensive process that recycles 2-phosphoglycolate, a toxic product of the Rubisco oxygenation reaction. The photorespiratory pathway is highly compartmentalized, involving the chloroplast, peroxisome, cytosol, and mitochondria. Though the soluble enzymes involved in photorespiration are well characterized, very few membrane transporters involved in photorespiration have been identified to date. In this work, Arabidopsis thaliana plants containing a T-DNA disruption of the bile acid sodium symporter BASS6 show decreased photosynthesis and slower growth under ambient, but not elevated CO2 Exogenous expression of BASS6 complemented this photorespiration mutant phenotype. In addition, metabolite analysis and genetic complementation of glycolate transport in yeast showed that BASS6 was capable of glycolate transport. This is consistent with its involvement in the photorespiratory export of glycolate from Arabidopsis chloroplasts. An Arabidopsis double knockout line of both BASS6 and the glycolate/glycerate transporter PLGG1 (bass6, plgg1) showed an additive growth defect, an increase in glycolate accumulation, and reductions in photosynthetic rates compared with either single mutant. Our data indicate that BASS6 and PLGG1 partner in glycolate export from the chloroplast, whereas PLGG1 alone accounts for the import of glycerate. BASS6 and PLGG1 therefore balance the export of two glycolate molecules with the import of one glycerate molecule during photorespiration.


Assuntos
Proteínas de Arabidopsis/metabolismo , Arabidopsis/metabolismo , Glicolatos/metabolismo , Arabidopsis/genética , Proteínas de Arabidopsis/genética , Dióxido de Carbono/metabolismo , Mutação , Fotossíntese/genética , Fotossíntese/fisiologia , Plantas Geneticamente Modificadas/genética , Plantas Geneticamente Modificadas/metabolismo
16.
Photosynth Res ; 124(1): 67-75, 2015 Apr.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-25663529

RESUMO

There is general consensus in the literature that plants with different photosynthetic mechanisms (i.e. C3 vs. C4) have Rubiscos characterised by different kinetic performances. However, potential differences in the temperature dependencies of Rubisco kinetic parameters between C3 and C4 plants are uncertain. Accordingly, six species of Flaveria with contrasting photosynthetic mechanisms (C3, C3/C4 and C4) were selected and their Rubisco Michaelis-Menten constants for CO2 and RuBP (K c and K RuBP), carboxylase catalytic turnover rate ([Formula: see text]) and CO2/O2 specificity factor (S c/o) were measured between 10 and 40 °C. The results confirmed different Rubisco characteristics between C3 and C4 plants. Rubisco from the C3 species had higher E a for K c and [Formula: see text] than that from C4 species, which were translated into differences in the temperature response of the carboxylase catalytic efficiency ([Formula: see text]/K c). However, E a did not differ for S c/o or K RuBP. Although a mechanism remains uncertain, it appears that the Asp/Glu-149-Ala and Met-309-Ile substitutions lead to differences in the temperature responses of catalysis between C3 and C4 Rubiscos in Flaveria. Therefore, the above observations are consistent with the fact that C3 species have a higher photosynthetic efficiency and ecological dominance in cool environments, with respect to C4 species in temperate environments.


Assuntos
Flaveria/enzimologia , Fotossíntese , Ribulose-Bifosfato Carboxilase/metabolismo , Temperatura , Biocatálise , Cinética , Especificidade da Espécie
17.
Photosynth Res ; 119(1-2): 203-14, 2014 Feb.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-23543330

RESUMO

Photosynthetic acclimation varies among species, which likely reveals variations at the biochemical level in the pathways that constitute carbon assimilation and energy transfer. Local adaptation and phenotypic plasticity affect the environmental response of photosynthesis. Phenotypic plasticity allows for a wide array of responses from a single individual, encouraging fitness in a broad variety of environments. Rubisco catalyses the first enzymatic step of photosynthesis, and is thus central to life on Earth. The enzyme is well conserved, but there is habitat-dependent variation in kinetic parameters, indicating that local adaptation may occur. Here, we review evidence suggesting that land plants can adjust Rubisco's intrinsic biochemical characteristics during acclimation. We show that this plasticity can theoretically improve CO2 assimilation; the effect is non-trivial, but small relative to other acclimation responses. We conclude by discussing possible mechanisms that could account for biochemical plasticity in land plant Rubisco.


Assuntos
Aclimatação , Fotossíntese/fisiologia , Fenômenos Fisiológicos Vegetais/fisiologia , Ribulose-Bifosfato Carboxilase/fisiologia , Adaptação Fisiológica , Dióxido de Carbono/metabolismo , Proteínas de Plantas/fisiologia
18.
Ann Bot ; 107(1): 135-43, 2011 Jan.
Artigo em Inglês | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-21059613

RESUMO

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Evolutionary transitions between separate and combined sexes have frequently occurred across various plant lineages. In mosses, which are haploid-dominant, evolutionary transitions from separate to combined sexes are often associated with genome doubling. Polyploidy and hermaphroditism have strong effects on the inbreeding depression of a population, and are subsequently predicted to affect the mating system. METHODS: We tested the association between ploidy (haploid, diploid or triploid gametophytes) and mating system in 21 populations of Atrichum undulatum sensu lato, where sex ratios vary widely. For each population, we measured the sex ratio, estimated selfing rates using allozyme markers and determined the level of ploidy through flow cytometry. KEY RESULTS: Hermaphrodites in A. undulatum were either diploid or triploid. However, many diploid populations were strictly separate-sexed, suggesting that hermaphroditism is not a necessary result of genome doubling. Levels of selfing were strongly supported as being greater than zero in one population with strictly separate-sexed individuals, and one-third of populations with hermaphrodites. CONCLUSIONS: Although hermaphrodites are associated with triploidy, hermaphroditism is not a necessary outcome of genome duplication. Hermaphroditism, but not genome duplication alone, increased estimated selfing rates, probably due to the occurrence of selfing within a gametophyte. Thus, genome duplication can influence the mating system and the associated evolution and maintenance of reproductive traits.


Assuntos
Briófitas/genética , Genoma de Planta , Reprodução Assexuada , Evolução Biológica , Briófitas/fisiologia , Diploide , Citometria de Fluxo , Variação Genética , Haploidia , Endogamia , Novo Brunswick , Reprodução , Razão de Masculinidade , Triploidia
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