Emotion-Driven Eating and Overeating Among Fourth Graders: The Roles of Body Image, Academic Achievement, and Peer and School Factors.

BACKGROUND: Eating patterns such as breakfast consumption and fruit and vegetable intake have been associated with academic achievement and cognitive function. METHOD: The purpose of this study was to learn more about psychological (emotion-driven eating) and behavioral (over-eating) eating patterns and motives, and the roles of body image, academic achievement (reading and math), and social supports (peer acceptance and school attachment), among 378 fourth-grade students (55% boys) from 14 classrooms across 6 schools within a large Midwestern urban area. RESULTS: Results were analyzed through a 2-group (male and female) path analysis. Boys' overeating (R2 = 9%) was not significantly predicted. Their emotional eating (R2 = 22.2%) was negatively, significantly predicted by peer acceptance and interaction of peer acceptance and school attachment. Girls' overeating (R2 = 13.6%) was negatively, significantly predicted by positive body image. Girls' emotional eating (R2 = 24.1%) was negatively significantly predicted by positive body image, math scores, and peer acceptance. CONCLUSIONS: Boys' and girls' eating patterns are differentially affected by their school experiences.

ACTIVE YOU: Teacher Attributes and Attitudes Predicting Physical Activity Promotion.

BACKGROUND: Based on the Health Belief Model, this study examined preservice teacher attributes and attitudes toward providing physical activity opportunities for children in school. METHODS: A quasi-experimental design was used to collect proof of concept and feasibility data for the ACTIVE YOU intervention as part of teacher education. CONCLUSIONS: Examination of a diverse sample of preservice teachers during their fieldwork revealed that those who engage in healthy behaviors and had positive attitudes toward physical activity in schools are more likely to take action and promote physical activity for their students.

Comprehensive school health: teachers' perceptions and implementation of classroom physical activity breaks in US schools.

Modifications to the social-ecological model, such as Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child (WSCC) frameworks, have been utilized in comprehensive school health interventions. Classroom physical activity breaks are used when implementing whole-of-school approaches. However, the onus to implement classroom physical activity breaks is on school stakeholders. This study aimed to explore teacher and principal perceptions and implementation of physical activity breaks in elementary schools. Further, this study investigated how theoretical factors representative of the social-ecological model and their interactions affect teacher and principal perceptions and utilization of classroom physical activity breaks. Interviews were conducted to understand teacher and principal perceptions and implementation. A total of 12 classroom teachers and five principals participated in semi-structured interviews which were analyzed using constant comparison and deductive analysis to identify relationships and themes coded across the social-ecological and WSCC models. To ensure fidelity individuals that led the professional development (n = 2) were also interviewed. Three main themes emerged as part of the data analysis: (i) The Connection Between Intrapersonal Knowledge and Interpersonal Professional Development, (ii) Resources, Sharing Means Caring and (iii) The Policy Level Creates Time. Teachers and principals valued knowledge and resources and felt that policy facilitated implementation. Results suggest that classroom physical activity breaks are influenced by multiple factors across varied levels of the social-ecological model. Understanding this relationship can inform future professional development to increase the provision of classroom physical activity breaks among teachers.

Global health statistics suggest that youth health is deteriorating. In response, international and national health organizations have called for school settings to adopt comprehensive school health approaches that provide youth with ample opportunities, such as physical activity across the school day, to improve their health behaviors and instill lifelong healthy habits. This study used the social­ecological model, which considers the interactions between an individual, their community, and the physical, social and political environments, to frame the exploration of how teachers and principals perceive and utilize physical activity breaks in elementary schools. Findings indicate that to foster school health, a comprehensive approach that supports teachers and their interactions while providing resources and policies is needed. Adoption of classroom physical activity breaks begins with teacher knowledge which fosters teacher interaction where best practices are built. Structural supports, including access to resources and the presence of policy, are also critical to sustained implementation because they can reinforce and support teachers' individual and shared use of health-based learning practices across the school day.

Predicting the Presence of Active Schools: A National Survey of School Principals in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Principals are key to the promotion of physical activity (PA) in schools. The purpose of this study was to understand how school principals' PA values, behaviors, and individual and school characteristics were associated with the presence of an active school. METHODS: A representative sample of 1019 school principals in the United States was surveyed. Survey items addressed principals' values and behaviors associated with PA, individual and school demographic factors, such as years of experience and school level, and a single item asking whether principals perceived their school to be an active school (ie, provides students with opportunities to be physically active before, during, and after the school day). Significant variables from a cross-tabulation and chi-square analysis were added to a hierarchical logistic regression model to assess the predictive properties of principal values and behaviors as they relate to the presence of an active school. RESULTS: Approximately half of principals (47%) reported having an active school. The model significantly predicted the presence of an active school but accounted for only 6.6% of the total variance. Although values toward PA and more frequent personal PA behaviors were associated with the presence of an active school within the cross-tabulation and chi-square analysis, neither variable emerged as a significant predictor in the regression model. CONCLUSIONS: Principals' personal PA values and behaviors contribute to the presence of an active school, but other variables, including years of experience and school contextual factors, are more powerful predictors.

The Benefits of School Recess: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Recess provides many physical, mental, and social benefits for students; however, the most recent systematic review examining the benefits of recess was conducted over a decade ago. The purpose of this paper was to determine the current benefits of school recess by conducting an updated systematic review of the literature. METHODS: Multiple databases were systematically examined to find articles fitting the following inclusionary criteria: (a) school recess, (b) all schooling before college, and (c) recess benefits of any kind. Research was limited to literature published between June 2009 and July 2020. RESULTS: Nine studies were included in this review. The majority of studies examined elementary-aged students. Seven studies were conducted in the United States, and 2 studies were conducted internationally. Recess provided school-aged children academic and cognitive benefits, behavioral and emotional benefits, physical benefits, and social benefits. IMPLICATIONS FOR SCHOOL HEALTH POLICY, PRACTICE, AND EQUITY: Providing recess for all school levels positively impacts the whole child; there was no literature implicating negative impacts of recess. CONCLUSIONS: Schools can improve overall student health and belonging by redesigning and/or implementing daily recess.

Classroom Teacher Efficacy Toward Implementation of Physical Activity in the D-SHINES Intervention.

BACKGROUND: Given levels of sedentary behavior among youth, teachers have been called upon to increase physical activity (PA) by implementing classroom PA breaks. School-based interventions enacted in classroom settings have shown promise in increasing youth PA. Yet little is known about how teacher efficacy toward implementing classroom PA breaks may influence intervention effects. PURPOSE: Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine how the Dearborn School Health through Integrated Nutrition and Exercise Strategies (D-SHINES) intervention, implemented across 8 schools, influenced classroom teacher's efficacy toward providing classroom PA breaks. METHODS: A mixed-methods design examined classroom teachers' efficacy toward implementing classroom PA breaks and used semi-structured interviews to better understand teachers' efficacy and implementation. RESULTS: Quantitative results indicated that teacher efficacy significantly increased over the intervention period and that general and institutional efficacy predicted higher amounts of PA breaks offered. Qualitative results suggested that to enhance teachers' facilitation of classroom PA breaks, one must tap into the institutional, student, and educational factors that constitute teacher efficacy. IMPLICATIONS FOR SCHOOL HEALTH: Designing interventions that focus on teacher efficacy toward classroom PA may be a viable way to increase PA breaks in schools. Implications for the whole school, whole community, whole child model are discussed.

Believe in You student empowerment program: A pilot study.

Introduction: The social and emotional health of youth is important, especially after students experience the COVID-19 pandemic. The purpose of this study was to understand the influence that the Believe In You Student Empowerment Program had on students social emotional learning (SEL) behaviors over a 10 week period during the COVID-19 pandemic. Materials and methods: A part of this quantitative study, one school in each the intervention and the control group (delayed intervention; 2 schools total) participated in the study. Students enrolled in physical education within each school participated (n = 166; Intervention = 88). Students in each group took a survey at week 1 (baseline measure), week 5, and week 10. Students who were in the intervention group started the program after week 1, while the delayed intervention group began the program in week 5. Results: A series of ANCOVA's examined the difference of social emotional learning knowledge and social emotional learning scales between the treatment and control groups. Self-awareness (F = 13.91, p < .01), self-management (F = 6.14, p < .01) & relationship skills (F = 5.50, p < .05) saw significant differences over time compared to the control group. The second series of analyses looked only at the intervention group and analyzed to determine significant differences in mean scores of SEL variables between weeks one and ten. Emotional regulation saw significant differences (t = 2.5, p < .01). The final set of analyses conducted were with the delayed intervention group and examined the difference in mean SEL scores over the three time periods. Again, emotional regulation saw significance with an interaction of time and gender (F = 4.162, p < .01). Discussion and Conclusion: In a short period of time, Believe in You Student Empowerment Program has shown the potential to have a positive influence on students social emotional learning behaviors, even during the COVID-19 pandemic. More research should be conducted over a longer period of time, in-person, and with an experimental design to better understand the effects of the Varsity Brands Believe in You Student Empowerment Program and its implications with student social emotional learning behaviors.

Effects of a Comprehensive School Health Program on Elementary Student Academic Achievement.

BACKGROUND: Improving the academic achievement of youth in the United States is an area of interest and a critical indicator of the future success of the youth. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of a comprehensive school physical activity and healthy eating program on 5th-grade students' academic achievement, specifically reading and math. METHODS: Overall, 628 (intervention: 377, 54% girls; comparison: 251, 49% girls) 5th-grade children participated across the 6 schools in a year-long comprehensive health intervention, completing curriculum-based academic achievement measures at 2 time-points. RESULTS: Results showed that even after controlling for class clustering, age, sex, race, and T1 reading and math variables, students' T2 reading and math achievement were significantly higher in the intervention group than the comparison group. CONCLUSIONS: Comprehensive health programming can enhance the health and academic achievement of youth.

Physical activity and motor skill outcomes of a 10-week intervention for children with intellectual and developmental disabilities ages 4-13: A pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Children with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) often experience increased barriers to engaging in physical activity (PA) which can stem from lack of gross motor function (GMF) development. Intervening on GMF at an early age can create better opportunities for children with IDD to engage in regular PA. In turn, increased PA can improve health outcomes and increase social skills. OBJECTIVE: The primary objective of this pilot study was to explore the effectiveness of a community-based GMF-focused PA intervention for improving overall motor skills and PA for children with IDD. METHODS: All study participants (n = 24) engaged in 10 weeks of programming for 1 h each week. A convenience sample was utilized. RESULTS: Results indicated no statistically significant changes pre to post for motor skill scores. However, a visual analysis of mean changes showed a consistent pattern of increased scores from pre to post on most skills. Additionally, we found that a change in participant locomotor skills significantly predicted change in Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity (MVPA), F (1,11) = 5.16, Adj R2 = .26, p = .04. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest individualized attention on GMF may help to increase motor skills for children with IDD. This study adds to the small but growing amount of research examining the efficacy of community based adapted PA interventions. Further, study results should support continued exploration of effective approaches to address the motor delays experienced by children with IDD.

The Benefits of Yoga in the Classroom: A Mixed-Methods Approach to the Effects of Poses and Breathing and Relaxation Techniques.

BACKGROUND: Disadvantaged youth in the United States are disproportionately likely to be more sedentary and obese and experience more stress than their counterparts with higher socioeconomic status. Yoga and breathing and relaxation techniques have positive effects on stress levels, physical activity levels, and behavior of school-aged children. AIMS: Using social cognitive theory to examine behavioral, personal, and environmental factors, the purpose of this pilot study was to examine the multilevel influences of a yoga-based classroom intervention on urban youth. METHODS: Using a mixed methodological quasi-experimental design, this pilot study included the third grade students (n = 40) at one urban elementary school. A survey contained stress, yoga behavior, and aggression scales. In addition, individual student interviews, a teacher interview, and classroom observations were conducted. RESULTS: Paired and independent sample t-tests showed pre/post differences in yoga participation both in and out of school for the intervention participants (P < 0.01). Qualitative analysis revealed three main themes: (1) increased use and enjoyment of yoga techniques, (2) behavioral changes both in/out of school, and (3) impact on personal factors. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that urban classrooms should include yoga and mindfulness training as it contributes to daily student PA and also can be stress relieving, fun, calming, and easy to perform outside of school.

The Role of Content Specificity in Situational Interest and Physical Activity.

Purpose: To identify the role of content specificity in moderating situational interest and its relationship with physical activity (PA), we examined the between- and within-content relations of situational interest and PA in an urban elementary physical education context using fitness and basketball as comparative contents. Method: Fourth and fifth graders (N = 125) completed questionnaires and wore pedometers to assess situational interest and PA across a fitness unit and a basketball unit, respectively. Results: Based on our confirmatory factor analyses and fit indexes, situational interest, and PA demonstrated strong content specificity. Strengths of associations between the two units differed by situational interest dimensions and PA (r ≤ .50). Within-content interrelations of these dimensions and PA were not consistent (X2 Decrease ≥ 3.40, p < .05). Conclusion: Our findings suggest that content specificity in physical education plays a significant role in moderating students' motivation and its function on PA.

Exploring Future Research in Physical Education: Espousing a Social Justice Perspective.

Although there has been forward movement in identifying and addressing diverse learning needs, social justice education is not a significant part of the current standards for beginning teachers or K-12 students in the U.S. Throughout our standards-based history, social justice has been more of a hidden curriculum. To attain the 50 Million Strong by 2029 goal, it is vital to acknowledge that physical education is a social justice issue. Without consideration of the historical, political, and social contexts that permeate and frame physical education, along with the social identities and lived experiences of our future teachers and students, it is unlikely that this goal will be sustained. While concerns have been voiced relative to the standards-based teaching movement, in a country that espouses standards-based education, a first step in moving any educational reform forward is to formalize its inclusion in the national standards that serve to guide our discipline. A philosophical shift may be what is needed for change to occur regarding social justice education in an attempt to enhance the learning opportunities for all students. A forward step in creating this change is to address the research and pedagogical practices of our current physical education teacher education and K-12 programs, along with the physical education standards and policies at the national and state levels. We specifically articulate connections between social justice education and four key, interconnected research areas related to (a) occupational socialization, (b) curriculum, instruction, and assessment, (c) technology, and (d) professional development.

Knowledge, Attitudes, Self-Efficacy, and Healthy Eating Behavior Among Children: Results From the Building Healthy Communities Trial.

Background/Aim. Increased knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about a topic and behavioral capability and self-efficacy for healthy eating are often a precursor to behavior change. The purpose of this study is to determine the effectiveness of the multicomponent school-based program on children's healthy eating knowledge, attitudes, and self-efficacy for healthy eating, and on their eating habits over time. Method. Quasi-experimental (4 treatment, 2 comparison) in a metropolitan area using a pretest-posttest method. Participants were 628 fifth-grade youth (377 treatment, 251 comparison) with a mean age of 9.9 years. The Building Healthy Communities (BHC) program is an 8-month school-wide healthy school transformation program and includes six main components. Outcome measures include children's healthy eating knowledge, attitudes, self-efficacy, and behavior. Missing data were imputed, confirmatory factor analysis tested scale factor structure, and path analysis determined a parsimonious path explaining behavior change. Results. The Student Attitudes and Self-Efficacy (SASE) scale had good measurement model fit. BHC group's healthy eating knowledge and behaviors increased significantly, while SASE remained moderate. For both groups, the students' knowledge and SASE significantly predicted their healthy eating behaviors; however, the intervention group accounted for a greater amount of variance (35% vs. 26%). Discussion. The BHC program was effective in improving healthy eating knowledge and behavior among youth, and the relationship between variables did not vary by group. Healthy eating knowledge is a significant predictor of both future knowledge and behavior.

Parental social support, perceived competence and enjoyment in school physical activity.

BACKGROUND: Beginning in the elementary school years, there are differences among children on how they perceive their competence in physical activity (PA). Children's competence perceptions may influence their affective reactions to PA. A crucial question is how to motivate children who hold low competence perceptions to enhance their enjoyment and PA involvement. Because parents play critical roles in children's development and socialization, social support from parents can be an important factor to complement teachers' effort to enhance children's enjoyment and PA involvement. In this research we identified the associations among children's beliefs about parental social support, perceived competence, and enjoyment in school PA. METHODS: Three hundred and twenty children (9-11 years old) participated in a two-wave study. At the first wave, children completed questionnaires measuring their beliefs about parental social support, perceived competence, and enjoyment in school PA; they reported their enjoyment again 8 months later at the second wave. RESULTS: Both concurrent and longitudinal analyses revealed that beliefs about parental social support were important factors associated with children's enjoyment in school PA, especially among girls with low competence perceptions. CONCLUSION: Family socialization factors should be taken into consideration. The efficacy of individual and community-level strategies should be included and evaluated when designing effective intervention strategies that enhance children's PA in school.

Building healthy communities: A comprehensive school health program to prevent obesity in elementary schools.

Obesity among children is highly prevalent and can lead to risk factors for chronic disease in adulthood. Key organizations have called on schools to play a larger role by increasing children's physical activity and nutrition by adopting an overall culture of health. This study examined the impact of a socioecological theory driven school-wide nutrition and physical activity intervention on 5th graders' central adiposity and obesity level. In 2015-2016, in the Midwest region of U.S., four treatment and two control schools, including 628 (377 treatment) 5th grade children participated in an eight-month intervention. Children in the treatment schools participated in a comprehensive healthy school transformation program consisting of six components. Waist-to-Height Ratio (WHtR) and Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated and used as the measure of obesity. ANCOVA revealed a significant difference in WHtR among treatment and control groups at time two (T2) FMI(1,6148.14) = 4.43, p = .035, R2 = 0.64, R2Treament = 0.01, with no significant differences based on age, sex, and race. Additionally, the ANCOVA for BMI revealed a marginally significant lower BMI among the treatment than comparison group students FMI(1, 614) = 3.575, p = .059, R2 = 0.01 (Mdiff = -0.23, 95%CI upper boundary: -0.03). The healthy school intervention led to significant differences in obesity levels, regardless of age, sex, or race, across the 8-month program between 5th grade children in treatment and non-treatment schools. This supports the ability of schoolwide programs to significantly and positively impact student health and chronic disease prevention.

A Reciprocal Effects Model of Children's Body Fat Self-Concept: Relations With Physical Self-Concept and Physical Activity.

This study investigated a reciprocal effects model (REM) of children's body fat self-concept and physical self-concept, and objectively measured school physical activity at different intensities. Grade four students (N = 376; M age = 9.07, SD = .61; 55% boys) from the midwest region of the United States completed measures of physical self-concept and body fat self-concept, and wore accelerometers for three consecutive school days at the beginning and end of one school year. Findings from structural equation modeling analyses did not support reciprocal effects. However, children's body fat self-concept predicted future physical self-concept and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Multigroup analyses explored the moderating role of weight status, sex, ethnicity, and sex*ethnicity within the REM. Findings supported invariance, suggesting that the observed relations were generalizable for these children across demographic groups. Links between body fat self-concept and future physical self-concept and MVPA highlight self-enhancing effects that can promote children's health and well-being.

Health Promotion Efforts as Predictors of Physical Activity in Schools: An Application of the Diffusion of Innovations Model.

BACKGROUND: Implementing a comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP) effectively addresses public health issues by providing opportunities for physical activity (PA). Grounded in the Diffusion of Innovations model, the purpose of this study was to identify how health promotion efforts facilitate opportunities for PA. METHODS: Physical and health education teachers (N = 256) nationwide were surveyed using a CSPAP Index to identify teacher's efforts for providing opportunities for PA within a school setting. RESULTS: A hierarchical regression analysis revealed total number of PA opportunities was significantly predicted by teachers' health promotion efforts, p < .001. Sex and years of experience were not significant covariates, p = .35, in the final step of the model. Accounting for teaching environments, the model was significant, p < .001. The strongest predictors were the promotional efforts of PA for family and community, p < .001, PA for staff members, p < .01, PA during the school day, p < .05, and PA before school, p < .05. CONCLUSIONS: To increase PA opportunities for children in schools, emphasis should be placed on health promotion. This study confirms the importance of teachers involving family, community, and staff members as co-health promoters when trying to increase PA engagement surrounding schools.

VII. The history of physical activity and academic performance research: informing the future.

The study of physical activity, physical fitness, and academic performance research are reviewed from a historical perspective, by providing an overview of existing publications focused on children and adolescents. Using rigorous inclusion criteria, the studies were quantified and qualified using both meta-analytic and descriptive evaluations analyses, first by time-period and then as an overall summary, particularly focusing on secular trends and future directions. This review is timely because the body of literature is growing exponentially, resulting in the emergence of new terminology, methodologies, and identification of mediating and moderating factors. Implications and recommendations for future research are summarized.

Physical literacy and Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this paper is to make a case for Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program (CSPAP) to be the organizational framework for providing physical activity opportunities for children that is most likely to result in physical literacy. METHOD: Beginning in 2010, the authors used multiple search engines to ascertain the existent literature surrounding physical literacy and physical activity interventions to identify common approaches to providing physically activity in and around school. Grounded in the Health Belief Model and the idea that physical literacy is a desired outcome of physical education, publications focused on each of the components of the CSPAP were synthesized to describe evidence-based practice. RESULTS: There is adequate evidence to suggest that quality physical education, before/after school, during school, staff involvement, and family and community engagement can serve as logical points of intervention to provide increased opportunities for physical activity participation leading to physical literacy among children. CONCLUSIONS: Since only 6% of all children participate in daily physical education classes and only six states offer K-12 physical education, the implementation of CSPAP may be the most logical avenue for providing greater opportunities for physical activity engagement that fosters physical literacy as a health-oriented educational goal.