Cognitive strategies utilised by early learners when writing alphabet-letters from memory.

INTRODUCTION: Occupational therapy handwriting studies have shown cognitive instructional techniques are effective methods to assist beginning or challenged handwriters. However, information about how children's cognitive (thinking) skills impact their handwriting development is scarce. This study examined the cognitive strategy efficiency of early learners while writing the alphabet-letters from memory. METHODS: Participants included 408 mainstream children in their first two years of formal schooling (Year 1 and Year 2). Children were asked to write the 26-lowercase alphabet-letters from memory. Data were collected using alphabet-letters generated by the children and observation of their cognitive strategy use while writing. The measurement tool employed was the Perceive, Recall, Plan, and Perform (PRPP) System of Task Analysis (Stage Two). RESULTS: The results found that Year 1 and Year 2 children had difficulties applying cognitive strategies across all four PRPP quadrants while writing the lowercase alphabet-letters from memory. Application of the cognitive strategies from the Plan and Recall quadrants showed the most inefficiencies. The lowest PRPP subquadrant scores were observed in Evaluating, Recall Facts, Sensing, and Programming. Except for the Attending subquadrant and the descriptor 'Regulates', Year 2 children were significantly better than Year 1 children at applying cognitive strategies from all other PRPP quadrants and subquadrants. CONCLUSION: The findings provide beginning evidence that efficient use of cognitive strategies from all four PRPP quadrants is important for children achieving proficiency in accurate and automatic alphabet-letter-writing skills. Recommendations for occupational therapy handwriting assessment and intervention are provided. PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY: Research suggests that occupational therapists can best help children with handwriting difficulties by using a cognitive approach. This approach involves instructing children how to form letters correctly, encouraging self-evaluation, and providing opportunities to practice handwriting. However, the cognitive (thinking) skills required for children to write alphabet-letters accurately are not well understood. To investigate this, a study was conducted on 408 mainstream children in their first two years of formal schooling (Year 1 and Year 2). The study examined how accurately the children could write lowercase alphabet-letters from memory and which cognitive skills they used to do so. The cognitive skills investigated were related to attention, perception, recalling, planning, and performing. The assumption tested was that mistakes in correctly writing alphabet-letters could be attributed to difficulties in using these cognitive skills effectively. The study found that Year 1 and Year 2 children made errors in over half of the 26-lowercase alphabet-letters they wrote. The cognitive skills, which scored the lowest were children's ability to evaluate their writing, recall how and where to write letters, gather information from their vision, and think carefully to ensure accuracy while writing. This implied that these thinking skills had the most impact on the children's ability to write alphabet-letters correctly. More research is needed to confirm these findings and determine the reliability of the tool used in this study to measure the children's thinking skills.

Patterns of cognitive strategy use common in children with reduced social competence derived from parent perceptions.

INTRODUCTION: Occupational therapists are increasingly being referred children who experience reduced social competence. Ineffective use of cognitive strategies during social interactions is known to contribute to reduced social competence in children who have difficulty learning. Little is known about the nature of social cognitive strategy use or how it may be observed in children during performance of school occupations. This study aimed to explore the type of difficulties in cognitive strategy use that children experience during performance of social tasks as perceived by their parents. METHODS: A retrospective chart review was used to analyse 306 PRPP@HOME (Primary) Parent/Caregiver Questionnaire responses targeting parent perceptions of their child's cognitive strategy use during social interactions. The children were in the first four years of formal schooling and identified by their teachers as having difficulties with social skills. Factor analysis was used to discover conceptual groupings amongst cognitive strategy use items. RESULTS: Four factors emerged from the analysis. Factor One grouped PRPP cognitive strategy items related to organised thinking, attention and processing external sensory details during social performance. Factor Two grouped items related to higher level thinking for internal self-evaluation of behaviour. Factor Three grouped items related to focused and dual attention during social interactions. Factor Four grouped items related to performance and adjustment of behaviour to match the context of social interaction. CONCLUSION: Parent perceptions indicate that children with reduced social competence experience inefficient use of cognitive strategies which organise attention, sensory perception and planning. This information can be used to specifically target programs which better support the thinking strategies which facilitate children's participation during social activities at school.

Cognitive aspects of social competence in the current New South Wales Kindergarten to Grade Six Syllabuses.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Occupational therapists are commonly referred children who find reduced social competence a barrier to participation in school activities. Little is known about the social skills expected of children at school and the thinking strategies children use during social interactions. This study aimed to investigate the social skills expected of children during school-based learning activities in the current NSW K-6 Syllabuses and the types of cognitive strategies expected during social interactions. METHODS: A qualitative text-based approach was adopted to explore the range of social skills expected of children at school. A content analysis of text-based data was used to identify specific social skills represented in the current NSW K-6 Syllabuses and the types of cognitive strategies required. Cognitive strategy use items from the PRPP System of Task Analysis were used to identify expected ways of thinking that related to social competence outcomes as stated in the Syllabus. RESULTS: Findings revealed a high number of social skills represented in expected learning outcomes for all six subjects included in the analysis. Four categories representing expected social behaviours across the syllabuses were identified: intrapersonal skills: communication by language; interpersonal skills and responding to others. Each desired social competence phrase embedded within syllabus objectives aligned with at least one item from the PRPP System of Task Analysis. The highest representation of expected strategy use was items from Recall (memory) and Planning (problem solving and evaluating) Quadrants. CONCLUSION: Investigation into the types of cognitive strategies embedded within Syllabus objectives which relate to social competence can assist therapists more accurately target social skills and associated cognitive strategies required for occupational performance at school. Findings from the study support the use of the PRPP System of Task Analysis for identifying and addressing cognitive strategy use during occupational therapy assessment and intervention.