Confirming Eight-Factor Structure of the Substance Use Motives Measure in a Sample of US College Students.

The 2020 National Survey on Drug Use indicates nearly three quarters of individuals ages 18-25 have used substances in the past year. Research suggests individuals who use substances to cope with negative mood states are typically more substance-involved, report more psychological distress, and have a more extensive treatment history. Additionally, the high rate of polysubstance use among substance using adults in the U.S. highlights the need for broadband measures that can adequately capture use, consequences, and motivations for use of multiple substances. However, most measures assessing motives for use are typically substance specific. Recently, Biolcati and Passini (2019) developed a brief, but comprehensive model of broad substance use motives (i.e., Substance Use Motives Measure, SUMM) based on well-established motives questionnaires (e.g., DMQ-R, MMQ). They found support for their proposed eight-factor model in an online sample of Italian citizens (ages 18-60). No studies to date have examined the psychometric properties of the SUMM with an English-speaking or US college student sample. The current study evaluates the factor structure of the SUMM in a sample of 143 college students (74.8% female, 77.6% White, and 94.4% non-Hispanic/Latinx) at a large, southeastern university in the United States. Results of a confirmatory factor analysis showed support for the previously identified eight-factor structure for the SUMM, with acceptable model fit and internal consistency of each factor found. Findings support using the SUMM as a broad measure of substance use motives, but more research is needed to assess measurement invariance across different groups and to evaluate external, concurrent, and convergent validity using other well-established measures of substance use motives, severity, and psychiatric symptomatology.

Psychometric Properties of the MMPI-3 in a Sample of Black and White American Undergraduate Students: Examining Group Differences and Convergent/Discriminant Validity with the ASEBA Adult Self-Report.

The current study examined MMPI-3 internal and external psychometric properties with a focus on the impact of racialized group membership (Black and White Americans). The second aim was to examine convergent/discriminant MMPI-3 scale associations with a different broadband, hierarchical self-report assessment tool [Adult Self-Report (ASR)]. Consistent with findings on prior MMPI iterations, we expected to observe no clinically meaningful mean differences on MMPI-3 scale T-scores. We hypothesized that validity coefficients between MMPI-3 and ASR scales measuring similar constructs would be stronger (convergent validity) and the inverse for scales measuring disparate constructs (discriminant validity). We also expected coefficient magnitude consistency across racial groups. The final sample was composed of 254 undergraduates (74.4% female; 63.8% White, 36.2% Black). Results suggest 1) MMPI-3 substantive scale mean T-scores are comparable between White and Black American undergraduates; 2) MMPI-3 scales correlate with ASR scale scores in expected ways with regard to internalizing problems, rule breaking and impulsivity, thought problems, and substance use (but not overall externalizing, aggression, attention problems, and intrusiveness); and 3) convergent and discriminant associations between MMPI-3 and ASR scales are consistent across White and Black Americans. This work provides support for MMPI-3 use with racially diverse individuals, considers next steps for understanding MMPI-3 scale score functioning in diverse populations, and provides novel information on MMPI-3 correspondence with the ASR.

Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder (PSCD) scale: A Latent Profile Analysis with At-Risk Adolescents.

The Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder (PSCD; Salekin in Pers Disord: Theory Res Treat 7:180-191, 2016) scale was designed to assess interrelated psychopathic trait domains in conjunction with symptoms of Conduct Disorder (CD) in children and adolescents (i.e., grandiose-manipulative, callous-unemotional, daring-impulsive). Variable-centered studies have provided support for a four-factor PSCD structure (Salekin et al. in Psychol Assess 34(10):985-992, 2022) in line with other adolescent and adult studies. The current person-centered study used latent profile analysis of the PSCD domains to examine whether theoretically meaningful and empirically robust PSCD subtypes emerged from a diverse sample (70.9% White, 20.1% Black, 3.6% Hispanic, and 5.4% other) of adolescents (modal age = 17) in a military style residential facility (N = 409; Males = 80.6%). As hypothesized, a four-class solution was best, consistent with adult psychopathy subtyping research (Hare et al. in Handbook of Psychopathy 39-79, 2018; Roy et al. in Pers Disord: Theory Res Treat, in press). The PSCD subtype profiles were uniform across sex and race/ethnicity. Adolescents evincing a psychopathic trait propensity profile (elevated on all four PSCD domains) displayed the greatest number of arrests and higher overall externalizing psychopathology, compared to the other three latent classes, as well as higher internalizing psychopathology compared to adolescents with general delinquency. The PSCD provides a sound measure of psychopathic trait propensities in youth and our results offer investigators and clinicians a means for understanding person-centered psychopathic traits versus antisocial profiles among at-risk adolescents. Taken together, the current results may offer a viable approach for examining specific treatment targets based on PSCD subtype profiles.

Evaluating Measures of Externalizing Personality Pathology Traits in Black and White American Adolescents in a Program for at-Risk Youths.

Adolescent personality assessment measures can aid in the identification of traits that are associated with various types of maladjustment. Externalizing personality pathology traits (e.g., antisocial, borderline, and narcissistic personality disorder features) are particularly relevant for many problematic outcomes, yet measures that assess these traits have not been validated extensively in diverse samples. The present study aimed to examine the properties of measures of externalizing personality pathology traits in a sample of White (n = 184) and Black (n = 99) adolescents participating in a residential program for at-risk youth. The fit of the proposed structure for these measures was tested in the sample as a whole and in each racial group separately. Associations between these measures and the count of disciplinary infractions received while in the program were also tested. Measures were found to have less than optimal fit in this sample, especially among Black adolescents. Suggestions for future research and clinical use of these measures are discussed.

Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder (PSCD): Factor structure and psychometric properties in a residential school facility.

The Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder scale (PSCD; Salekin & Hare, 2016) is a new scale for the assessment of psychopathic characteristic domains in children and adolescents. The four domains are Grandiose-manipulative (GM), Callous-unemotional (CU), Daring-impulsive (DI), and Conduct Disorder (CD). We examined the properties of the self-report version of the PSCD in a large sample of adolescents (n = 409; age = 16-19; 80.6% male) in a military-style residential facility. Factor analytic results supported a four-factor model consistent with other PSCD research (e.g., López-Romero et al., 2019; Luo et al., 2021). Structural equation model (SEM) indicated a superordinate PSCD factor accounted for significant variance in self-reported delinquency history. The PSCD had good internal consistency and strong convergent and discriminant validity with measures of externalizing and internalizing disorders. The present study provides encouraging data that the PSCD may provide a sound measure of psychopathic propensities in youth. However, additional data are needed to test the stability of the PSCD. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Test-Retest Reliability of Self-Reported Substance Use and Sexual Risk Behavior Among at-Risk Adolescents.

Adolescents often engage in behaviors such as substance use and risky sexual activity that can lead to negative health and psychological consequences for themselves and others. Accurate measurement of these behaviors in surveys is challenging given that the behaviors are often viewed as undesirable and/or are illegal, so it is important to test the psychometric properties of instruments used to assess adolescent risk behaviors. The current study aimed to assess the test-retest reliability of a widely used measure of youth risk-taking behavior, the Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS). A sample of 156 at-risk adolescents aged 16-18 years (81% male; 61% White) completed the YRBS retrospectively across intervals ranging from 3 to 12 days during their stay in a residential program at which they were under close supervision and had limited ability to engage in new risk behaviors. Participants were asked to complete the YRBS based on their "typical" (pre-program) behavior at both administrations, which were 10-14 weeks into their stay. The reliability of responses was assessed using kappa and weighted kappa analyses. Findings indicate moderate to substantial reliability for nearly all items, suggesting that at-risk youth reliably reported their engagement in health risk behaviors across multiple administrations and supporting the psychometric strength of the YRBS measure for use with this population.

Using the Personality Assessment Inventory-Adolescent in Legal Settings.

The Personality Assessment Inventory-Adolescent (PAI-A; Morey et al., 2007) is a self-report measure of personality and psychopathology appropriate for use with individuals aged 12-18. It is modeled after the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 1991), a measure widely used with adults in clinical and legal settings. The PAI-A assesses a variety of features that have utility in legal settings, including validity scales that assess approach to testing, clinical scales measuring common types of psychopathology, and treatment consideration scales that provide indicators of treatment motivation and other factors that may be important for predicting outcomes. The PAI-A has been included in a limited number of research studies and few of those have focused on justice-involved youths. Additionally, because juvenile court records are not typically publicly available, there is limited information about the PAI-A available in case law. This manuscript reviews the properties, strengths, and weaknesses of the PAI-A and its existing literature. Factors for mental health and legal professionals to consider in relation to the admissibility of this measure, questioning and cross-examination, and how the PAI-A may be received in court are also discussed.

Optimal PAI-A Cutoffs to Determine Risk for Non-Suicidal Self-Injury (NSSI) and Suicide-Related Behavior (SRB) among At-Risk Adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: This study examines psychopathology and personality correlates of non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) and suicide-related behavior (SRB) in an understudied sample of adolescents who have exhibited behaviors (e.g., delinquent acts, premature high school termination) that place them at-risk for poor psychosocial outcomes. METHOD: Participants included a predominantly White male sample of 182 adolescents (Mage = 16.82 years). In addition to information about NSSI and SRB histories, participants self-reported various facets of personality and psychopathology on the Personality Assessment Inventory-Adolescent (PAI-A). RESULTS: Logistic regression analyses indicated that the Suicidal Ideation (SUI) scale on the PAI-A was the strongest predictor of both NSSI and SRB history, as it outperformed other relevant PAI-A scales and the Suicide Potential Index (SPI), an aggregate scale that was designed to assess for suicide risk using the PAI for adults. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses were also conducted to determine optimal cutoff scores for significant PAI-A predictors. CONCLUSIONS: Findings from the current study can be used to identify NSSI and SRB risk and target these life-threatening behaviors when working with at-risk adolescents.HighlightsPAI-A SUI outperformed other PAI-A variables in predicting NSSI and SRB risk.PAI SPI did not perform as well in adolescents compared to adult samples.Cutoff scores in the current sample were well below those in the PAI-A manual.

Applying the PAI Treatment Process Index to PAI-As Completed by Adolescents in a Residential Program.

The Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) Treatment Process Index (TPI) is a measure of treatment amenability based on an index of factors related to poor treatment outcomes (e.g., hostility, lack of social support, and poor impulse control). In this study, the formula used to calculate the TPI for the adult PAI was applied to PAI-Adolescent (PAI-As) protoocols completed by 372 adolescents (mean age: 16.8 years; 80% male) during a 22-week residential program for at-risk youth. The number of disciplinary infractions received during the program was used as an indicator of the participants' response to the program. Average PAI-A scale scores and TPI scores were higher than those previously reported for community samples, but lower than those found in clinical samples. TPI scores were positively associated with disciplinary infractions, particularly nonaggressive infractions, when controlling for demographic factors and other clinically relevant variables. Results suggest that the the TPI has relevance for adolescents completing the PAI-A.

Increased mood disorder symptoms, perceived stress, and alcohol use among college students during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic caused significant disruption during the spring of 2020. Many college students were told to leave campus at spring break and to complete the semester remotely. This study evaluates effects of this disruption on student well-being. Measures of psychological symptoms, perceived stress, and alcohol use during the pandemic were completed by 148 students in spring 2020 and 352 students in fall 2020 at a university in the southeastern U.S. Results from both cohorts were compared to 240 students who completed the same measures in the fall 2019 semester. Participants in spring 2020 reported more mood disorder symptoms, perceived stress, and alcohol use than did pre-pandemic participants and worry about COVID-19 was negatively associated with well-being. By fall 2020 symptoms had largely returned to pre-pandemic levels. In general, White students reported a greater effect of the pandemic on well-being than did African American students. Young adults appear to be less vulnerable to the most serious medical complications associated with COVID-19, but nonetheless experience psychological effects from the pandemic. Universities and practitioners who work with college students can help young adults manage their symptoms and avoid behaviors like risky alcohol use when confronted with stressors such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Expectations and Preferences for Psychotherapy Among African American and White Young Adults.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined beliefs, expectations, and preferences related to mental health problems and treatment in a sample of young adults who are in a developmental period when many types of psychopathology emerge. Prior studies on this topic have primarily included samples that are older and predominately White. It is not clear whether results from that research generalize to diverse samples of young adults. METHODS: Participants were 370 undergraduate students (41.3% African American; 76.5% female) who completed questionnaires about expectations and preferences for psychotherapy and therapists. RESULTS: Findings regarding racial differences include African Americans having less experience with mental health services and different goals for psychotherapy than did Whites. Additionally, African Americans, relative to Whites, demonstrated stronger preferences for couple, family, and group psychotherapy, a male therapist their same race, and a therapist who is assertive and structured in session. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study provide information about young adults' perceptions, expectations, and preferences related to mental health problems and psychotherapy. Findings suggest some barriers to treatment that might be addressed to improve treatment engagement and utilization of psychological services among young adults in general and among African American young adults specifically.

The Validity of the Personality Assessment Inventory-Adolescent in Assessing Callous-Unemotional Traits in At-Risk Adolescents.

This study examines the validity of the Personality Assessment Inventory-Adolescent (PAI-A; Morey) in assessing callous-unemotional (CU) traits within two independent samples of at-risk adolescents from a residential intervention program. The study tests the extent to which CU traits are represented within PAI-A scales with respect to empirically- or theoretically-related indicators, such as antisociality, aggression, low warmth, low social connectedness, and subdued internalizing psychopathology. The PAI-A substantive scales statistically accounted for an average of 55.0% of the variance in total scores on the Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits (ICU; Frick) across samples. Broadly, PAI-A substantive scales evinced theoretically-consistent relations with CU traits. Consistent with expectations, CU traits were broadly related to PAI-A-assessed constructs of antisocial features, aggression, low warmth and social disconnection, but not to subdued internalizing symptoms. Moreover, some of the PAI-A clinical, treatment consideration, and interpersonal scales or subscales demonstrated differential relations across the traits. Implications for assessment of CU traits using the PAI framework are discussed. Overall, this research adds to the literature on CU traits in broadband personality assessment and provides a foundation for future research on CU traits using the PAI-A.

The Structure, Measurement Invariance, and External Validity of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-Brief in a Sample of At-Risk Adolescents.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the factor structure and measurement invariance of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-Brief version (BIS-Brief) in an archival sample of 315 adolescents (81% male; 63.5% Caucasian; Mage = 16.7 years) participating in a military-style residential program for at-risk youths. Additionally, correlations between BIS scores and external measures of impulsivity-related behaviors were examined. Results showed support for a previously described two-dimensional structure for the BIS-Brief, which was invariant across racial groups. Additionally, the BIS-Brief performed similarly to the total BIS-11 score in relation to external measures of impulsivity-related behaviors. However, the two dimensions exhibited some significant differences in their associations with other measures. This study supports the utility of the BIS-Brief as a brief measure of impulsivity and suggests that the dimensions of the BIS-Brief may be useful in distinguishing how different aspects of impulsivity relate to problem behaviors such as binge drinking and self-injury.

Understanding At-Risk Youths: Average PAI-A Scores and Their Associations with Impulsivity-Related Constructs.

The purpose of this study was to extend research on the Personality Assessment Inventory-Adolescent (PAI-A; Morey, 2007) to include an examination of mean PAI-A results and associations between the PAI-A and indicators of impulsivity in a large sample of at-risk adolescents (Mage = 16.75; 79% male; 64% Caucasian) in a military-style residential program. Included in this study are archival records for a diverse sample of 497 youths who participated in the program during a 2-year period. Average T scores on PAI-A scales ranged from 44.67 to 65.41. Moderate to large positive associations (rs = .30-.65) were found between relevant PAI-A scales and both UPPS-P scales and self-reported substance use. There were smaller effects (r = .17) for associations between the PAI-A and program disciplinary infractions. Small to large group differences (ds = .19-.93) on PAI-A scales differentiated youths who had experience with arrests or NSSI from those who did not. This study provides information about the under-studied but vulnerable youths occupying the space between the normative population and youths with identified clinical or legal problems. It also clarifies how impulsivity and impulsivity-related behaviors may be represented on the PAI-A.

A test of the psychometric characteristics of the BIS-Brief among three groups of youth.

The Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11) is the most widely administered trait impulsiveness questionnaire. Recently a shorter, unidimensional version of the instrument was developed for adults (BIS-Brief). While psychometric characteristics of the BIS-Brief support its use among adults, it also may be more appropriate for youth samples than the complete BIS-11 because it less burdensome and omits items about activities not usually encountered by children and adolescents. This article describes a test of psychometric characteristics of the BIS-Brief among youth. To measure a sufficiently wide range of scores, analyses were conducted based on secondary data analysis of data sets pooled from 3 distinct youth cohorts aged 10-17: healthy controls (Control; n = 356); those who had a family history of substance use disorder (FH+; n = 302); and psychiatric inpatients (Patients; n = 322). Model fit for the BIS-Brief was good but varied somewhat depending on the respondent cohort. There was a strong correlation between test and re-test BIS-Brief both within a single day and at 6 months, and also a strong correlation between BIS-Brief and BIS-11 scores. Concurrent validity was supported by correlation with questionnaire measures, which tended to be more robustly associated with BIS-Brief than behavioral measures. Both BIS-Brief and BIS-11 forms were similarly associated with other convergent measures. In conclusion, the BIS-Brief is a shorter version of the BIS-11 that reduces participant burden and with psychometric properties that support its use among youth populations. (PsycINFO Database Record

Preadolescent sensation seeking and early adolescent stress relate to at-risk adolescents' substance use by age 15.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Substance use during adolescence can lead to the development of substance use disorders and other psychosocial problems. These negative outcomes are especially likely for individuals who use substances at earlier ages and those who engage in heavier use during adolescence, behaviors which are both more common among youth at higher risk for developing a substance use disorder, such as those with a family history of substance use disorders (FH+). Factors such as increased sensation seeking and greater exposure to stressors among FH+ youth may influence these associations. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the relative and unique contributions of sensation seeking during preadolescence and exposure to stressors during early to mid-adolescence to cumulative substance use by mid-adolescence among FH+ youth. METHODS: A total of 167 mostly Hispanic FH+ youth (ages 12-15) who were participating in an ongoing longitudinal study were included in these analyses. Participants' data from biennial waves covering approximately 2.5years were used. Self-reported sensation seeking, exposure to stressors, and substance use were compared. RESULTS: Higher sensation seeking during preadolescence and greater exposure to stressors during early to mid-adolescence were both associated with substance use by age 15. These factors differentiated Substance Users from Non-Users, and also related to level of substance use. CONCLUSIONS: Elevated sensation seeking and exposure to stressors are both associated with substance use by age 15 among high-risk youth. Additionally, these factors can distinguish youth who develop heavier substance use during this important developmental period.

Early Adolescent Trajectories of Impulsiveness and Sensation Seeking in Children of Fathers with Histories of Alcohol and Other Substance Use Disorders.

BACKGROUND: Problem substance use often begins in adolescence. This vulnerability likely stems, at least partially, from relatively rapid increases in sensation seeking occurring in early to mid-adolescence and more gradual improvements in impulse control occurring through later adolescence. Better understanding how these processes develop in high-risk youth may lead to enhanced substance use disorder treatment and prevention strategies. METHODS: We characterized trajectories of self-reported impulsivity and sensation seeking in 305 FH+ youths who at minimum had a father with a history of alcohol or other drug use disorders and 81 youths with no family histories of substance use disorders (FH-). Assessments started at ages 10 to 12 and continued at 6-month intervals for up to 42 months. In addition, a subset of 58 FH+ youths who began alcohol or other drug use before age 15 (FH+ Users) were compared to 58 FH+ propensity-matched adolescents who did not initiate substance use before age 15 (FH+ Non-Users). RESULTS: Compared to FH- youths at preadolescence, FH+ youths reported higher general impulsivity and higher impulsivity related to poor planning and attention. Over time, there were no differential effects of FH status on changes in impulsivity or sensation seeking across adolescence. FH+ Users had smaller decreases in general impulsivity and impulsivity related to restlessness and fidgeting across adolescence than FH+ Non-Users. FH+ Users also had greater increases in sensation seeking across adolescence than FH+ Non-Users. CONCLUSIONS: Increased impulsivity in FH+ youths may make them less able to regulate sensation seeking drives that peak in adolescence, which may contribute to their high risk for developing substance use disorders. Additionally, FH+ adolescents who initiate early use may be at increased risk in part due to increased impulsivity coupled with greater increases in sensation seeking.

Pubertal Maturation Compression and Behavioral Impulsivity among Boys at Increased Risk for Substance Use.

OBJECTIVES: While early onset of puberty among girls has been related to substance use involvement and other adverse outcomes, less research has examined pubertal development and outcomes in boys. Further, research on puberty has not been conducted in the context of other risk factors for substance use involvement such as impulsivity. To address these gaps, this study characterized boys' pubertal development from preadolescence to mid-adolescence and related it to substance use risk and behavioral impulsivity. METHODS: A sample of 153 boys completed the Pubertal Development Scale to assess perception of their pubertal development relative to same age peers from ages 10 to 16 years, at 6-month intervals. Group-based trajectory modeling identified three distinct patterns of pubertal development: boys with more slowly developing boys with either earlier (n = 54) or later (n = 43) pubertal timing, and boys with faster tempo of pubertal development (n = 56). The groups were compared on demographic and substance use risk characteristics, as well as behavioral measures of impulsivity. RESULTS: Boys who had the accelerated progression through puberty had the highest proportion of family histories of substance use disorder and perform more impulsively on reward choice measures. CONCLUSIONS: Outcomes are consistent within the Maturation Compression Hypothesis and social neuroscience models of adolescent developmental risk.

Child Problems as a Moderator of Relations Between Maternal Impulsivity and Family Environment in a High-Risk Sample.

OBJECTIVE: Previous studies have suggested that maternal characteristics are related to family environment; however, the relation between maternal impulsivity, in particular, and family environment is not well understood. As such, we examined direct relations between maternal impulsivity and family environment, as well as whether the relation between maternal impulsivity and family environment was moderated by child problems for sons and daughters. We hypothesized that child problems would moderate the association between maternal impulsivity and family environment. We also explored whether these associations differ for boys and girls. METHOD: Data from the initial visit of a longitudinal study was used for the current study. Participants included 297 youth (137 boys; 160 girls) of 10 to 12 years of age (M = 10.99, SD = .84) and their mothers. The majority of the sample had a family history of substance use disorder (n = 236). RESULTS: Hierarchical linear regressions showed that for sons there was a significant interaction between maternal impulsivity and child problems on family environment. Maternal impulsivity was positively related to family environment problems among sons with few emotional and behavioral problems, but there was no significant correlation among sons with high problem levels. Among daughters, there was no significant interaction between maternal impulsivity and child emotional and behavioral problems on family environment. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that the association between maternal impulsivity and family environment may depend on problem level and child gender. Thus, addressing maternal impulsivity in therapy may benefit some families.

Altered developmental trajectories for impulsivity and sensation seeking among adolescent substance users.

A number of studies have associated impulsivity and sensation seeking with level of substance use and risk for developing a substance use disorder. These relationships may be particularly apparent during adolescence, when developmental changes in impulsivity and sensation seeking occur at the same time as increased opportunities for substance use. To examine this, the current study measured impulsivity and sensation seeking from pre-adolescence to mid-adolescence in a sample of youth, the majority of whom were identified as being at risk for developing a substance use disorder based on their family history of substance use disorders. Youth were separated into those who did (n=117) and did not (n=269) initiate substance use by mid-adolescence. Results showed that substance users were more impulsive and more sensation seeking during pre-adolescence, prior to any significant substance use, and that greater sensation seeking in pre-adolescence was related to heavier substance use by mid-adolescence. In addition, developmental trajectories for substance-using youth showed a greater increase in sensation seeking but a more modest decrease in impulsivity from pre-adolescence to mid-adolescence. Taken together, these results indicate that increased impulsivity and sensation seeking is apparent in adolescent substance users as early as pre-adolescence, that the difference between substance users and non-users becomes larger across early adolescence as their developmental trajectories diverge, and that greater sensation seeking in pre-adolescence may predict increased substance use by mid-adolescence.