Biochemical, Bioinformatic, and Structural Comparisons of Transketolases and Position of Human Transketolase in the Enzyme Evolution.

Transketolases (TKs) are key enzymes of the pentose phosphate pathway, regulating several other critical pathways in cells. Considering their metabolic importance, TKs are expected to be conserved throughout evolution. However, Tittmann et al. (J Biol Chem, 2010, 285(41): 31559-31570) demonstrated that Homo sapiens TK (hsTK) possesses several structural and kinetic differences compared to bacterial TKs. Here, we study 14 TKs from pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and parasites and compare them with hsTK using biochemical, bioinformatic, and structural approaches. For this purpose, six new TK structures are solved by X-ray crystallography, including the TK of Plasmodium falciparum. All of these TKs have the same general fold as bacterial TKs. This comparative study shows that hsTK greatly differs from TKs from pathogens in terms of enzymatic activity, spatial positions of the active site, and monomer-monomer interface residues. An ubiquitous structural pattern is identified in all TKs as a six-residue histidyl crown around the TK cofactor (thiamine pyrophosphate), except for hsTK containing only five residues in the crown. Residue mapping of the monomer-monomer interface and the active site reveals that hsTK contains more unique residues than other TKs. From an evolutionary standpoint, TKs from animals (including H. sapiens) and Schistosoma sp. belong to a distinct structural group from TKs of bacteria, plants, fungi, and parasites, mostly based on a different linker between domains, raising hypotheses regarding evolution and regulation.

Structural determination and kinetic analysis of the transketolase from Vibrio vulnificus reveal unexpected cooperative behavior.

Vibrio vulnificus (vv) is a multidrug-resistant human bacterial pathogen whose prevalence is expected to increase over the years. Transketolases (TK), transferases catalyzing two reactions of the nonoxidative branch of the pentose-phosphate pathway and therefore linked to several crucial metabolic pathways, are potential targets for new drugs against this pathogen. Here, the vvTK is crystallized and its structure is solved at 2.1 Å. A crown of 6 histidyl residues is observed in the active site and expected to participate in the thiamine pyrophosphate (cofactor) activation. Docking of fructose-6-phosphate and ferricyanide used in the activity assay, suggests that both substrates can bind vvTK simultaneously. This is confirmed by steady-state kinetics showing a sequential mechanism, on the contrary to the natural transferase reaction which follows a substituted mechanism. Inhibition by the I38-49 inhibitor (2-(4-ethoxyphenyl)-1-(pyrimidin-2-yl)-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridine) reveals for the first time a cooperative behavior of a TK and docking experiments suggest a previously undescribed binding site at the interface between the pyrophosphate and pyridinium domains.

High-Throughput Solid-Phase Assay for Substrate Profiling and Directed Evolution of Transketolase.

Thiamine diphosphate-dependent enzymes, and specifically transketolases, form one of the most important families of biocatalytic tools for enantioselective carbon-carbon bond formation yielding various hydroxyketones of biological interest. To enable substrate profiling of transketolases for acceptance of different donors and acceptors, a simple, direct colorimetric assay based on pH reaction variation was developed to establish a high-throughput solid-phase assay. This assay reduces the screening effort in the directed evolution of transketolases, as only active variants are selected for further analysis. Transketolase activity is detected as bicarbonate anions released from the α-ketoacid donor substrate, which causes the pH to rise. A pH indicator, bromothymol blue, which changes color from yellow to blue in alkaline conditions, was used to directly detect, with the naked eye, clones expressing active transketolase variants, obviating enzyme extraction.

Innovative Electrochemical Screening Allows Transketolase Inhibitors to Be Identified.

Transketolases (TKs) are ubiquitous thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP)-dependent enzymes of the nonoxidative branch of the pentose phosphate pathway. They are considered as interesting therapeutic targets in numerous diseases and infections (e.g., cancer, tuberculosis, malaria), for which it is important to find specific and efficient inhibitors. Current TK assays require important amounts of enzyme, are time-consuming, and are not specific. Here, we report a new high throughput electrochemical assay based on the oxidative trapping of the TK-TPP intermediate. After electrode characterization, the enzyme loading, electrochemical protocol, and substrate concentration were optimized. Finally, 96 electrochemical assays could be performed in parallel in only 7 min, which allows a rapid screening of TK inhibitors. Then, 1360 molecules of an in-house chemical library were screened and one early lead compound was identified to inhibit TK from E. coli with an IC50 of 63 µM and an inhibition constant ( KI) of 3.4 µM. The electrochemical assay was also used to propose an inhibition mechanism.

Continuous High-Throughput Colorimetric Assays for α-Transaminases.

Transaminases are efficient tools for the stereoselective conversion of prochiral ketones into valuable chiral amines. Notably, the diversity of naturally occurring α-transaminases offers access to a wide range of L- and D-α-amino acids. We describe here two continuous colorimetric assays for the quantification of transamination activities between a keto acid and a standard donor substrate (L- or D-Glutamic acid or cysteine sulfinic acid). These assays are helpful for kinetic studies as well as for high-throughput screening of enzyme collections.

Stereoselective synthesis of γ-hydroxy-α-amino acids through aldolase-transaminase recycling cascades.

Efficient bi-enzymatic cascades combining aldolases and α-transaminases were designed for the synthesis of γ-hydroxy-α-amino acids. These recycling cascades provide high stereoselectivity, atom economy, and an equilibrium shift of the transamination. l-syn or anti-4-hydroxyglutamic acid and d-anti-4,5-dihydroxynorvaline were thus prepared in 83-95% yield in one step from simple substrates.

Second-Generation Engineering of a Thermostable Transketolase (TKGst ) for Aliphatic Aldehyde Acceptors with Either Improved or Reversed Stereoselectivity.

The transketolase from Geobacillus stearothermophilus (TKGst ) is a thermostable enzyme with notable high activity and stability at elevated temperatures, but it accepts non-α-hydroxylated aldehydes only with low efficiency. Here we report a protein engineering study of TKGst based on double-site saturation mutagenesis either at Leu191 or at Phe435 in combination with Asp470; these are the residues responsible for substrate binding in the active site. Screening of the mutagenesis libraries resulted in several positive variants with activity towards propanal up to 7.4 times higher than that of the wild type. Variants F435L/D470E and L191V/D470I exhibited improved (73 % ee, 3S) and inverted (74 % ee, 3R) stereoselectivity, respectively, for propanal. L191V, L382F/E, F435L, and D470/D470I were concluded to be positive mutations at Leu191, Leu382, Phe435, and Asp470 both for activity and for stereoselectivity improvement. These results should benefit further engineering of TKGst for various applications in asymmetric carboligation.

Thiamine biosensor based on oxidative trapping of enzyme-substrate intermediate.

In the present work, we describe a new thiamine amperometric biosensor based on thiamine pyrophosphate (ThDP)-dependent transketolase (TK)-catalyzed reaction, followed by the oxidative trapping of TK intermediate α,ß-dihydroxyethylthiamine diphosphate (DHEThDP) within the enzymatic active site. For the biosensor design purpose, TK from Escherichia coli (TKec) was immobilized in Mg2Al-NO3 Layered Double Hydroxides (LDH) and the electrochemical detection was achieved with the TKec/LDH modified glassy carbon electrode (GCE). The transduction process was based on the ability of Fe(CN)63- to oxidize DHEThDP to glycolic acid along with ThDP regeneration. The released Fe(CN)64- was re-oxidized at +0.5V vs Ag-AgCl and the reaction was followed by chronoamperometry. The TKec/LDH/GCE biosensor was optimized using the best TK donor substrates, namely l-erythrulose and d-fructose-6-phosphate. ThDP was assayed with great sensitivity (3831mAM-1cm-2) over 20-400nM linear range.

Continuous colorimetric screening assays for the detection of specific L- or D-α-amino acid transaminases in enzyme libraries.

In the course of a project devoted to the stereoselective synthesis of non-proteinogenic α-amino acids using α-transaminases (α-TA), we report the design and optimization of generic high-throughput continuous assays for the screening of α-TA libraries. These assays are based on the use of L- or D-cysteine sulfinic acid (CSA) as irreversible amino donor and subsequent sulfite titration by colorimetry. The assays' quality was assessed under screening conditions. Hit selection thresholds were accurately determined for every couple of substrates and a library of 232 putative transaminases expressed in Escherichia coli host cells was screened. The reported high throughput screening assays proved very sensitive allowing the detection with high confidence of activities as low as 10 µU (i.e., 0.01 nmol substrate converted per min). The assays were also evidenced to be stereochemically discriminant since L-CSA and D-CSA allowed the exclusive detection of L-TA and D-TA, respectively. These generic assays thus allow testing the stereoselective conversion of a wide range of α-keto acids into α-amino acids of interest. As a proof of principle, the use of 2-oxo-4-phenylbutyric acid as acceptor substrate led to the identification of 54 new α-TA offering an access to valuable L- or D-homophenylalanine.

A thermostable transketolase evolved for aliphatic aldehyde acceptors.

Directed evolution of the thermostable transketolase from Geobacillus stearothermophilus based on a pH-based colorimetric screening of smart libraries yielded several mutants with up to 16-fold higher activity for aliphatic aldehydes and high enantioselectivity (>95% ee) in the asymmetric carboligation step.

Profiling substrate specificity of two series of phenethylamine analogs at monoamine oxidase A and B.

The membrane bound enzyme monoamine oxidase exist in two splice variants designated A and B (MAO-A and MAO-B) and are key players in the oxidative metabolism of monoamines in mammalians. Despite their importance and being a prevalent target for the development of inhibitors as drugs, no systematic study of substrate specificity has been reported. In this study we present a systematic study of the MAO-A and MAO-B substrate specificity profile by probing two series of phenethylamine analogs. Km and kcat values were determined for four N-alkyl analogs 2-5 and four aryl halide analogs 6-9 at MAO-A and MAO-B. A following in silico study disclosed a new adjacent compartment to the MAO-B substrate pocket defined by amino acids Tyr188, Tyr435, Tyr398, Thr399, Cys172 and Gly434. This new insight is important for the understanding of the substrate specificity of the MAO-B enzyme and will be relevant for future drug design within the field of monoamines.

An efficient amperometric transketolase assay: towards inhibitor screening.

This paper describes an innovative amperometric biosensor for the in vitro determination of activity of transketolase from Escherichia coli (TKec) using commercially available TK substrates, namely d-fructose-6-phosphate a physiological donor and glycolaldehyde the best non-phosphorylated acceptor. A galactose oxidase (GAOx) biosensor, based on the immobilization of this enzyme within laponite clay, allows amperometric detection of L-erythrulose released upon TK-catalyzed reaction. A calibration curve has been established from 0.01 to 0.1 U ml(-1) TKec concentration in solution. These data are comparable to that obtained by a fluorometric method. In order to ensure a higher sensitivity and re-usability of the system, an original bienzymatic sensing system was further developed based on apoenzyme TKec and GAOx separately immobilized on the electrode surface. The inner sensing layer contains GAOx@laponite and the outer layer TKec@layered double hydroxide biohybrid. The biosensor response was validated by the determination of KD(app) for thiamine diphosphate, the TK cofactor and the inhibition action of two commercially available products, pyrophosphate, a TK cofactor analog and d-arabinose-5-phosphate, a substrate analog.

Optimized immobilization of transketolase from E. coli in MgAl-layered double hydroxides.

Immobilization of TK from Escherichia coli (TKec) on MgAl-NO3 layered double hydroxides (LDH) was carried out by two processes: adsorption and coprecipitation. As a comparison, the adsorption method was realized either at pH 7.5 in buffered solutions (MOPS and Gly-Gly) or in pure water. For the coprecipitation method, the formation of the inorganic LDH support was realized directly in the presence of TKec solubilized in Gly-Gly. The prepared biohybrids, called respectively TKec@LDHads and TKec@LDHcop, were characterized by powder X-ray diffraction, FTIR spectroscopy in comparison with TKec free reference products, i.e. MgAl-NO3, MgAl-Gly-Gly. The enzymatic activities of the various TKec@LDH biohybrids as well as their stabilities over time were investigated by UV-vis assay. A maximum of activity (12 U/mg of solid) was reached for TKec@MgAl-Gly-Gly biohybrid prepared by coprecipitation. Finally, thin films were prepared through a one-step deposition on a polished support. The enzymatic activity of the resulting TKec@MgAl-Gly-Glycop film was tested over four recycling processes with a reproducible activity of 2.7 U/mg cm(2).

A pH-based high-throughput assay for transketolase: fingerprinting of substrate tolerance and quantitative kinetics.

A pH-based high-throughput assay method has been developed for the rapid and reliable measurement of transketolase (TK) activity. The method is based on the decarboxylation of lithium hydroxypyruvate (HPA) as a hydroxyacetyl donor with an aldehyde acceptor, using phenol red as the pH indicator. Upon release of carbon dioxide from HPA, the pH increase in the reaction mixture can be determined photometrically by the color change of the pH indicator. At low buffer concentration (2 mM triethanolamine, pH 7.5), the method is highly sensitive and allows continuous monitoring, for quantitative determination of the kinetic parameters. By using this method, the substrate specificities of the TK enzymes from Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, as well as two active-site-modified variants of the E. coli TK (D469E, H26Y) were evaluated against a panel of substrate analogues; specific activities and kinetic constants could be rapidly determined. Substrate quality indicated by assay determination was substantiated with novel TK applications by using achiral 3-hydroxypropanal and 4-hydroxybutanal for preparative synthesis of chiral deoxyketose-type products. Determination of ee for the latter could be performed by chiral GC analysis, with an unambiguous correlation of the absolute configuration from rotation data. This pH-based assay method is broadly applicable and allows rapid, sensitive, and reliable screening of the substrate tolerance of known TK enzymes and variants obtained from directed evolution.

Electrochemical detection of transketolase activity using a tyrosinase biosensor.

This paper proposes a new concept of transketolase (TK) activity profiling. A tyrosinase (PPO) biosensor, based on the immobilization of this enzyme in a Mg(2)Al-Cl layered double hydroxide, was developed for the amperometric detection of N-acetyl-l-tyrosine ethyl ester monohydrate (N-Ac-Tyr-OEt) at -0.2V. This compound was released during an enzymatic reaction catalyzed by TK with N-acetyl-O-(2R, 3S, 5-trihydroxy-4-oxopentyl)-l-tyrosine ethyl ester used as donor substrate. This tyrosinase biosensor was optimized for the detection of TK activity, including PPO optimum substrate concentration, electrolyte nature, pH, and influence of bovine serum albumin (BSA). It was found that N-Ac-Tyr-OEt release is dependent on TK concentration (U/mL) in the electrolyte medium. These results demonstrate the sensitivity and specificity of the tyrosinase biosensor designed for in vitro detection of TK activity, which is known to be involved in several diseases.

Amino acid precursors for the detection of transketolase activity in Escherichia coli auxotrophs.

Probes were developed for the in vivo detection of transketolase activity by the use of a complementation assay in Escherichia coli auxotrophs They combine the d-threo ketose moiety recognised by transketolase and the side chain of leucine or methionine. These compounds were donor substrates of yeast transketolase leading to the release of the corresponding alpha-hydroxyaldehydes which could be converted in E. coli by a cascade of reactions into leucine or methionine required for cellular growth.

2-Aminobenzothiazole degradation by free and Ca-alginate immobilized cells of Rhodococcus rhodochrous.

2-Aminobenzothiazole (ABT) degradation was investigated using free and immobilized systems during photodegradation under solar light in the presence of Fe(III)-nitrilotriacetic acid (FeNTA), biodegradation by Rhodococcus rhodochrous, and during combined conditions. Ca-alginate hydrogel was chosen as a model matrix and some complementary studies were required to characterize this new system. R. rhodochrous metabolism in this type of environment was monitored by NMR spectroscopy. Neither change in intracellular pH values nor in ATP concentrations was observed by in vivo(31)P NMR, showing that no metabolic modification occurred between free and immobilized cells. (1)H NMR demonstrated that alginate was not used as carbon source by R. rhodochrous. After establishing the pre-treatment protocol by SPE to eliminate solubilised alginate, ABT adsorption on beads and degradation were studied. The same pathways of transformation were observed in suspended and immobilized cell systems. Considering the ABT adsorption phenomenon on alginate beads (8%), the efficiency of the two systems was found to be comparable although the degradation rate was slightly lower with immobilized cells. The most important result was the finding that the positive effect of FeNTA on ABT degradation with immobilized cells was similar to that observed previously with free cells. All these results show that mechanisms observed with free cells can be extrapolated to entrapped cells, i.e. under conditions much closer to those usually encountered in the environment.

Improved straightforward chemical synthesis of dihydroxyacetone phosphate through enzymatic desymmetrization of 2,2-dimethoxypropane-1,3-diol.

Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) was synthesized in high purity and yield in four steps starting from dihydroxyacetone dimer (DHA) (47% overall yield). DHA was converted into 2,2-dimethoxypropane-1,3-diol, which was desymmetrized by acetylation with lipase AK. The alcohol function was phosphorylated to give dibenzyl phosphate ester 4. From 4, two routes were investigated for large-scale synthesis of DHAP. First, acetate hydrolysis was performed prior to hydrogenolysis of the phosphate protective groups. The acetal hydrolysis was finally catalyzed by the phosphate group itself. Second, acetate and acetal hydrolysis were performed in one single step after hydrogenolysis.

4-Hydroxymethyl-3-aminoacridine derivatives as a new family of anticancer agents.

3-Amino- and 3-alkylamino-4-hydroxymethylacridines bearing various substituents on the C ring have been prepared by regioselective electrophilic aromatic substitution of the corresponding 3-aminoacridines and ring opening of the dihydrooxazinoacridine key intermediates. Most of the new compounds show potent cytotoxic activities against murine L1210 (leukemia), human A549 (lung), and HT29 (colon) cancer cell lines. The most cytotoxic molecules, 1 and 13, are active at nanomolar concentrations. As predicted for acridine derivatives, the new compounds intercalate in DNA, but interestingly they do not interfere with topoisomerase I and II activities. The mode of action remains uncertain because intracellular distribution indicated very different behaviors for 1 and 13. Compound 13 is uniformly distributed in the cell both in the cytoplasm and in the nucleus, whereas compound 1 is essentially localized in cytoplasmic granules.

Synthesis and DNA interaction of a mixed proflavine-phenanthroline Tröger base.

We report the synthesis of an asymmetric Tröger base containing the two well characterised DNA binding chromophores, proflavine and phenanthroline. The mode of interaction of the hybrid molecule was investigated by circular and linear dichroism experiments and a biochemical assay using DNA topoisomerase I. The data are compatible with a model in which the proflavine moiety intercalates between DNA base pairs and the phenanthroline ring occupies the DNA groove. DNase I cleavage experiments were carried out to investigate the sequence preference of the hybrid ligand and a well resolved footprint was detected at a site encompassing two adjacent 5'-GTC.5-GAC triplets. The sequence preference of the asymmetric molecule is compared to that of the symmetric analogues.