Mean-field model of synchronization for open-loop, swirl controlled thermoacoustic system.

Open-loop control is known to be an effective strategy for controlling self-excited periodic oscillations, known as thermoacoustic instability, in turbulent combustors. Here, we present experimental observations and a synchronization model for the suppression of thermoacoustic instability achieved by rotating the otherwise static swirler in a lab-scale turbulent combustor. Starting with the state of thermoacoustic instability in the combustor, we find that a progressive increase in the swirler rotation rate leads to a transition from the state of limit cycle oscillations to the low-amplitude aperiodic oscillations through a state of intermittency. To model such a transition while also quantifying the underlying synchronization characteristics, we extend the model of Dutta et al. [Phys. Rev. E 99, 032215 (2019)] by introducing a feedback between the ensemble of phase oscillators and the acoustic. The coupling strength in the model is determined by considering the effect of the acoustic and swirl frequencies. The link between the model and experimental results is quantitatively established by implementing an optimization algorithm for model parameter estimation. We show that the model is capable of replicating the bifurcation characteristics, nonlinear features of time series, probability density function, and amplitude spectrum of acoustic pressure and heat release rate fluctuations at various dynamical states observed during the transition to the state of suppression. Most importantly, we discuss the flame dynamics and demonstrate that the model without any spatial inputs qualitatively captures the characteristics of the spatiotemporal synchronization between the local heat release rate fluctuations and the acoustic pressure that underpins a transition to the state of suppression. As a result, the model emerges as a powerful tool for explaining and controlling instabilities in thermoacoustic and other extended fluid dynamical systems, where spatiotemporal interactions lead to rich dynamical phenomena.

Two-dimensional mathematical framework for evaporation dynamics of respiratory droplets.

In majority of pandemics in human history, respiratory bio-aerosol is the most common route of transmission of diseases. These tiny droplets ejected through mouth and nose from an infected person during exhalation process like coughing, sneezing, speaking, and breathing consist of pathogens and a complex mixture of volatile and nonvolatile substances. A cloud of droplets ejected in such an event gets transmitted in the air, causing a series of coupled thermo-physical processes. Contemplating an individual airborne droplet in the cloud, boundary layers and wakes develop due to relative motion between the droplet and the ambient air. The complex phenomenon of the droplet's dynamics, such as shear-driven internal circulation of the liquid phase and Stefan flow due to vaporization or condensation, comes into effect. In this study, we present a mathematical description of the coupled subprocesses, including droplet aerodynamics, heat, and mass transfer, which were identified and subsequently solved. The presented two-dimensional model gives a complete analysis encompassing the gas phase coupled with the liquid phase responsible for the airborne droplet kinetics in the ambient environment. The transient inhomogeneity of temperature and concentration distribution in the liquid phase caused due to the convective and diffusive transports are captured in the 2D model. The evaporation time and distance traveled by droplets prior to nuclei or aerosol formation are computed for major geographical locations around the globe for nominal-windy conditions. The model presented can be used for determining the evaporation timescale of any viral or bacterial laden respiratory droplets across any geographical location.

An opinion on the multiscale nature of Covid-19 type disease spread.

Recognizing the multiscale, interdisciplinary nature of the Covid-19 transmission dynamics, we discuss some recent developments concerning an attempt to construct a disease spread model from the flow physics of infectious droplets and aerosols and the frequency of contact between susceptible individuals with the infectious aerosol cloud. Such an approach begins with the exhalation event-specific, respiratory droplet size distribution (both airborne/aerosolized and ballistic droplets), followed by tracking its evolution in the exhaled air to estimate the probability of infection and the rate constants of the disease spread model. The basic formulations and structure of submodels, experiments involved to validate those submodels, are discussed. Finally, in the context of preventive measures, respiratory droplet-face mask interactions are described.

Precipitation dynamics of surrogate respiratory sessile droplets leading to possible fomites.

HYPOTHESIS: The droplets ejected from an infected host during expiratory events can get deposited as fomites on everyday use surfaces. Recognizing that these fomites can be a secondary route for disease transmission, exploring the deposition pattern of such sessile respiratory droplets on daily-use substrates thus becomes crucial. EXPERIMENTS: The used surrogate respiratory fluid is composed of a water-based salt-protein solution, and its precipitation dynamics is studied on four different substrates (glass, ceramic, steel, and PET). For tracking the final deposition of viruses in these droplets, 100 nm virus emulating particles (VEP) are used and their distribution in dried-out patterns is identified using fluorescence and SEM imaging techniques. FINDINGS: The final precipitation pattern and VEP deposition strongly depend on the interfacial transport processes, edge evaporation, and crystallization dynamics. A constant contact radius mode of evaporation with a mixture of capillary and Marangoni flows results in spatio-temporally varying edge deposits. Dendritic and cruciform-shaped crystals are majorly seen in all substrates except on steel, where regular cubical crystals are formed. The VEP deposition is higher near the three-phase contact line and crystal surfaces. The results showed the role of interfacial processes in determining the initiation of fomite-type infection pathways in the context of COVID-19.

On secondary atomization and blockage of surrogate cough droplets in single- and multilayer face masks.

Face masks prevent transmission of infectious respiratory diseases by blocking large droplets and aerosols during exhalation or inhalation. While three-layer masks are generally advised, many commonly available or makeshift masks contain single or double layers. Using carefully designed experiments involving high-speed imaging along with physics-based analysis, we show that high-momentum, large-sized (>250 micrometer) surrogate cough droplets can penetrate single- or double-layer mask material to a significant extent. The penetrated droplets can atomize into numerous much smaller (<100 micrometer) droplets, which could remain airborne for a significant time. The possibility of secondary atomization of high-momentum cough droplets by hydrodynamic focusing and extrusion through the microscale pores in the fibrous network of the single/double-layer mask material needs to be considered in determining mask efficacy. Three-layer masks can effectively block these droplets and thus could be ubiquitously used as a key tool against COVID-19 or similar respiratory diseases.

Evaporation-induced alterations in oscillation and flow characteristics of a sessile droplet on a rose-mimetic surface.

Strategic control of evaporation dynamics can help control oscillation modes and internal flow field in an oscillating sessile droplet. This article presents the study of an oscillating droplet on a bio-inspired "sticky" surface to better understand the nexus between the modes of evaporation and oscillation. Oscillation in droplets can be characterized by the number of nodes forming on the surface and is referred to as the mode of oscillation. An evaporating sessile droplet under constant periodic perturbation naturally self-tunes between different oscillation modes depending on its geometry. The droplet geometry evolves according to the mode of evaporation controlled by substrate topography. We use a bio-inspired, rose patterned, "sticky" hydrophobic substrate to perpetually pin the contact line of the droplet in order to hence achieve a single mode of evaporation for most of the droplet's lifetime. This allows the prediction of experimentally observed oscillation mode transitions at different excitation frequencies. We present simple scaling arguments to predict the velocity of the internal flow induced by the oscillation. The findings are beneficial to applications which seek to tailor energy and mass transfer rates across liquid droplets by using bio-inspired surfaces.

Analyzing the dominant SARS-CoV-2 transmission routes toward an ab initio disease spread model.

Identifying the relative importance of the different transmission routes of the SARS-CoV-2 virus is an urgent research priority. To that end, the different transmission routes and their role in determining the evolution of the Covid-19 pandemic are analyzed in this work. The probability of infection caused by inhaling virus-laden droplets (initial ejection diameters between 0.5 µm and 750 µm, therefore including both airborne and ballistic droplets) and the corresponding desiccated nuclei that mostly encapsulate the virions post droplet evaporation are individually calculated. At typical, air-conditioned yet quiescent indoor space, for average viral loading, cough droplets of initial diameter between 10 µm and 50 µm are found to have the highest infection probability. However, by the time they are inhaled, the diameters reduce to about 1/6th of their initial diameters. While the initially near unity infection probability due to droplets rapidly decays within the first 25 s, the small yet persistent infection probability of desiccated nuclei decays appreciably only by O ( 1000 s ) , assuming that the virus sustains equally well within the dried droplet nuclei as in the droplets. Combined with molecular collision theory adapted to calculate the frequency of contact between the susceptible population and the droplet/nuclei cloud, infection rate constants are derived ab initio, leading to a susceptible-exposed-infectious-recovered-deceased model applicable for any respiratory event-vector combination. The viral load, minimum infectious dose, sensitivity of the virus half-life to the phase of its vector, and dilution of the respiratory jet/puff by the entraining air are shown to mechanistically determine specific physical modes of transmission and variation in the basic reproduction number R 0 from first-principles calculations.

Modeling the role of respiratory droplets in Covid-19 type pandemics.

In this paper, we develop a first principles model that connects respiratory droplet physics with the evolution of a pandemic such as the ongoing Covid-19. The model has two parts. First, we model the growth rate of the infected population based on a reaction mechanism. The advantage of modeling the pandemic using the reaction mechanism is that the rate constants have sound physical interpretation. The infection rate constant is derived using collision rate theory and shown to be a function of the respiratory droplet lifetime. In the second part, we have emulated the respiratory droplets responsible for disease transmission as salt solution droplets and computed their evaporation time, accounting for droplet cooling, heat and mass transfer, and finally, crystallization of the dissolved salt. The model output favourably compares with the experimentally obtained evaporation characteristics of levitated droplets of pure water and salt solution, respectively, ensuring fidelity of the model. The droplet evaporation/desiccation time is, indeed, dependent on ambient temperature and is also a strong function of relative humidity. The multi-scale model thus developed and the firm theoretical underpinning that connects the two scales-macro-scale pandemic dynamics and micro-scale droplet physics-thus could emerge as a powerful tool in elucidating the role of environmental factors on infection spread through respiratory droplets.

Insights on drying and precipitation dynamics of respiratory droplets from the perspective of COVID-19.

We isolate a nano-colloidal droplet of surrogate mucosalivary fluid to gain fundamental insights into airborne nuclei's infectivity and viral load distribution during the COVID-19 pandemic. The salt-water solution containing particles at reported viral loads is acoustically trapped in a contactless environment to emulate the drying, flow, and precipitation dynamics of real airborne droplets. Similar experiments validate observations with the surrogate fluid with samples of human saliva samples from a healthy subject. A unique feature emerges regarding the final crystallite dimension; it is always 20%-30% of the initial droplet diameter for different sizes and ambient conditions. Airborne-precipitates nearly enclose the viral load within its bulk while the substrate precipitates exhibit a high percentage (∼80-90%) of exposed virions (depending on the surface). This work demonstrates the leveraging of an inert nano-colloidal system to gain insights into an equivalent biological system.

Investigating thermoacoustic instability mitigation dynamics with a Kuramoto model for flamelet oscillators.

In this paper, we present experimental observations and phenomenological modeling of the intermittent dynamics that emerge while mitigating thermoacoustic instability by rotating the otherwise static swirler in a lean premixed, laboratory-scale combustor. Starting with a self-excited thermoacoustically unstable combustor, here we find that a progressive increase in swirler rotation rate does not uniformly decrease amplitudes of coherent, sinusoidal pressure or heat-release-rate oscillations. Instead, these oscillations emerge as high-amplitude bursts separated by low-amplitude noise in the signal. At increased rotational speeds, the high-amplitude coherent oscillations become scarce and their duration in the signal reduces. The velocity field from high-speed particle image velocimetry and simultaneous pressure and chemiluminescence data support these observations. Such an intermittent route to instability mitigation is reminiscent of the opposite transition implemented by changing the Reynolds number from a fully chaotic state to a fully unstable state. To model such dynamics phenomenologically, we discretize the swirling turbulent premixed flame into an ensemble of flamelet oscillators arranged circumferentially around the center body of the swirler. The Kuramoto model is proposed for these flamelet oscillators which is subsequently used to analyze their synchronization dynamics. The order parameter r, which is a measure of the synchronization between the oscillator phases, provides critical insights on the transition from the thermoacoustically unstable to stable states via intermittency. Finally, it is shown that the Kuramoto model for flamelet oscillator can qualitatively reproduce the time-averaged and intermittent dynamics while transitioning from the state of thermoacoustic instability to a state of incoherent noisy oscillations.

Flame blowout: Transition to an absorbing phase.

The turbulent flame inside a gas turbine engine is susceptible to local extinction leading to global extinguishment or blowout at fuel lean conditions. Flame blowout is traditionally viewed as a loss of static stability of the combustor. However, flames often exhibit rich dynamics as blowout is approached suggesting that a more comprehensive description of the dynamics of flame blowout, which could lead to reduced order models, is necessary. A turbulent flame can be considered as a collection of a large number of flamelets. The population dynamics of these flamelets could be used to model the overall flame behavior as a contact process. In this context, flame blowout can be viewed as the population of flamelets approaching zero, in other words, extinction of flamelets. In this paper, we employ a cellular automata based model to study the emergent dynamics of the population of such flamelets. We show that the model is able to qualitatively capture interesting dynamics that a turbulent flame inside a combustor exhibits close to flame blowout. Furthermore, we show that flame blowout is similar to a threshold-like transition to an absorbing phase.

Evaporation-Oscillation Driven Assembly: Microtailoring the Spatial Ordering of Particles in Sessile Droplets.

This work explores the physical mechanism that can be used to control the final residual pattern of nanoparticles obtained from an evaporating-oscillating sessile droplet. To that end, the substrate is vibrated in the vertical direction with a constant amplitude, while the frequency of excitation is varied. It is found that evaporation progressively shifts the mode number of the oscillating droplet to lower values, while the oscillations enhance the rate of solvent loss, causing a reduction in the droplet lifetime. The coupling between evaporation and oscillation drives the internal flow through two distinct regimes. Initially, oscillation leads to inner flow recirculation, which delays the evaporation driven edge deposition of particles. Subsequently at lower modes, caused by solvent depletion, the effect of oscillation is weakened, which allows evaporation-driven flow to gain prominence and thus transport the dispersed particles to the contact line. We demonstrate here how this delay in particle migration can be controlled to engineer morphological changes in not just the resulting macroscopic aspect of the deposit but also its microstructure. We especially focus on the relatively unexplored microstructural pattern of deposits from evaporating-oscillating droplets. Using scanning electron micrograph and Voronoi tessellation of the final deposit, we show unique spatial variation in particle ordering at macro-micro length scales. Thus, droplet oscillation tunes the spatial extent of the particle ordering crucial in applications like photonic crystals and photonic glass.

Micro to Nanoscale Engineering of Surface Precipitates Using Reconfigurable Contact Lines.

Nanoscale engineering has traditionally adopted the chemical route of synthesis or optochemical techniques such as lithography requiring large process times, expensive equipment, and an inert environment. Directed self-assembly using evaporation of nanocolloidal droplet can be a potential low-cost alternative across various industries ranging from semiconductors to biomedical systems. It is relatively simple to scale and reorient the evaporation-driven internal flow field in an evaporating droplet which can direct dispersed matter into functional agglomerates. The resulting functional precipitates not only exhibit macroscopically discernible changes but also nanoscopic variations in the particulate assembly. Thus, the evaporating droplet forms an autonomous system for nanoscale engineering without the need for external resources. In this article, an indigenous technique of interfacial re-engineering, which is both simple and inexpensive to implement, is developed. Such re-engineering widens the horizon for surface patterning previously limited by the fixed nature of the droplet interface. It involves handprinting hydrophobic lines on a hydrophilic substrate to form a confinement of any selected geometry using a simple document stamp. Droplets cast into such confinements get modulated into a variety of shapes. The droplet shapes control the contact line behavior, evaporation dynamics, and complex internal flow pattern. By exploiting the dynamic interplay among these variables, we could control the deposit's macro- as well as nanoscale assembly not possible with simple circular droplets. We provide a detailed mechanism of the coupling at various length scales enabling a predictive capability in custom engineering, particularly useful in nanoscale applications such as photonic crystals.

Network structure of turbulent premixed flames.

In this paper, a generalized description of the complex topology of turbulent premixed flames stabilized in a model gas turbine combustor is obtained using network analysis. Networks are created using the visibility algorithm applied to points on the flame edge obtained from Hydroxyl radical (OH)-Planar Laser Induced Fluorescence images of turbulent premixed flames. The network structure thus obtained showed the emergence of a few massively connected nodes which were found to represent the folded regions of the flame front. These nodes, which are called the hubs of the network, are vital for determining the overall structure of the flame front. Degree distribution of the formulated networks is used to characterize the flame-turbulence interaction inherent in the system. Turbulent flame front networks were found to be rigid enough to be unaffected by random perturbations but highly vulnerable towards coordinated removal of hubs or folds. These findings could serve as the first network-analytic approach to characterize turbulence-flame interaction dynamics with the use of a flourishing network theory, which enhances ongoing works based on vortex dynamics, hydrodynamic stability, and thermo-acoustic instability.

Insights into Drying of Noncircular Sessile Nanofluid Droplets toward Multiscale Surface Patterning Using a Wall-Less Confinement Architecture.

Surface patterning with functional colloids is an important research area because of its widespread applicability in domains such as nanoelectronics, pharmaceutics, semiconductors, and photovoltaics among others. In this endeavor, we propose a low-cost patterning technique that aspires to eliminate the more expensive methodologies that are presently in practice. Using a simple document stamp on which patterns of any geometry can be embossed, we are able to print 2D millimeter-scale "wall-less confinement" using an ink-based hydrophobic fence on any plasma-treated superhydrophilic surface. The confinement is subsequently filled with nanocolloidal liquid(s). Using confinement geometry, we are able to control the 3D shape of the droplet to exhibit multiple interfacial curvatures. The droplet in the "wall-less confinements" evaporates naturally, exhibiting unique geometry (curvature)-induced flow structures that induce the nanoparticles to self-assemble into functional patterns. We have also shown that by modifying the geometry of the pattern, evaporation, flow, and particle deposition dynamics get altered, leading to precipitate topologies from macro- to microscales. We present two such geometrical designs that demonstrate the capability of modifying both macroscopic and microscopic features of the final precipitate. We have also provided a description of the physical mechanisms of the drying process by resolving the unique flow pattern using a combination of imaging and microparticle image velocimetry. These provide insights into the coupled dynamics of evaporation and flow responsible for the evolution of particle deposition pattern. Precipitate characterization using scanning electron microscopy and dark-field microscopy highlights the transformation in the deposit morphology.

Controlling particle deposit morphologies in drying nano-particle laden sessile droplets using substrate oscillations.

Sessile water droplets containing nano-silica particles are allowed to evaporate in the presence of driven substrate oscillations at chosen frequencies. Different mode shapes are observed at different oscillation frequencies. As reference, the evaporation of the same droplets is also observed under stationary conditions i.e. in the absence of any oscillations. For all cases, the deposit structures formed by the agglomeration of the nano-silica particles have been imaged. It has been observed that for the stationary droplets and for droplets whose oscillations are initiated close to the resonance of the lowest allowable oscillation mode, the structures are similar having larger spread over height, while for higher frequencies the structures are dome-like with more uniform outer dimensions. The possible reasons behind these structures are investigated using experimental techniques such as high-speed imaging of droplet oscillations, internal flow visualization and SEM imaging. Understanding of the underlying mechanisms behind the formation of these striking features is required for these methods to be applicable in larger scale drying operations or micro-device applications. Altogether a novel methodology has been presented and investigated for manipulating the morphological features in evaporating nano-particle laden sessile droplets.

Pair dispersion of turbulent premixed flame elements.

Flame particles are mathematical points comoving with a reacting isoscalar surface in a premixed flame. In this Rapid Communication, we investigate mean square pair separation of flame particles as a function of time from their positions tracked in two sets of direct numerical simulation solutions of H(2)-air turbulent premixed flames with detailed chemistry. We find that, despite flame particles and fluid particles being very different concepts, a modified Batchelor's scaling of the form 〈|Δ(F)(t)-Δ(F)(0)|(2)〉=C(F)(〈ɛ〉(0)(F)Δ(0)(F))(2/3)t(2) holds for flame particle pair dispersion. The proportionality constant, however, is not universal and depends on the isosurface temperature value on which the flame particles reside. Following this, we attempt to analytically investigate the rationale behind such an observation.

Facilitated ignition in turbulence through differential diffusion.

Contrary to the belief that ignition of a combustible mixture by a high-energy kernel is more difficult in turbulence than in quiescence because of the increased dissipation rate of the deposited energy, we experimentally demonstrate that it can actually be facilitated by turbulence for mixtures whose thermal diffusivity sufficiently exceeds its mass diffusivity. In such cases, turbulence breaks the otherwise single spherical flame of positive curvature, and hence positive aerodynamics stretch, into a multitude of wrinkled flamelets subjected to either positive or negative stretch, such that the intensified burning of the latter constitutes local sources to facilitate ignition.

Scaling of turbulent flame speed for expanding flames with Markstein diffusion considerations.

In this paper we clarify the role of Markstein diffusivity, which is the product of the planar laminar flame speed and the Markstein length, on the turbulent flame speed and its scaling, based on experimental measurements on constant-pressure expanding turbulent flames. Turbulent flame propagation data are presented for premixed flames of mixtures of hydrogen, methane, ethylene, n-butane, and dimethyl ether with air, in near-isotropic turbulence in a dual-chamber, fan-stirred vessel. For each individual fuel-air mixture presented in this work and the recently published iso-octane data from Leeds, normalized turbulent flame speed data of individual fuel-air mixtures approximately follow a Re_{T,f}^{0.5} scaling, for which the average radius is the length scale and thermal diffusivity is the transport property of the turbulence Reynolds number. At a given Re_{T,f}^{}, it is experimentally observed that the normalized turbulent flame speed decreases with increasing Markstein number, which could be explained by considering Markstein diffusivity as the leading dissipation mechanism for the large wave number flame surface fluctuations. Consequently, by replacing thermal diffusivity with the Markstein diffusivity in the turbulence Reynolds number definition above, it is found that normalized turbulent flame speeds could be scaled by Re_{T,M}^{0.5} irrespective of the fuel, equivalence ratio, pressure, and turbulence intensity for positive Markstein number flames.

Accelerative propagation and explosion triggering by expanding turbulent premixed flames.

The dynamics and morphology of outwardly propagating, accelerating turbulent premixed flames and the effect of flame acceleration on explosion triggering are analyzed. Guided by recent theoretical results and substantiated by experiments, we find that an expanding flame front in an externally forced, near-isotropic turbulent environment exhibits accelerative propagation given by a well-defined power law based on the average global flame radius. In this context the limits of the power-law exponent and the effective turbulence intensity experienced by the flame are derived. The power-law exponent is found to be substantially larger than that for the hydrodynamically unstable cellular laminar flames, hence facilitating the possibility of detonation triggering in turbulent environments. For large length scales, hydrodynamic instability is expected to provide additional acceleration, thus further favoring the attainment of detonation triggering.