Unique Cytokine/Chemokine Signatures for HIV-1 and HCV Mono-infection versus Co-infection as Determined by the Luminex® Analyses.

Liver disease caused by HIV-1/HCV co-infection is characterized by the inflammation and cell-death. The co-existence of these two chronic viral infections also alters the cytokine production in vivo. The ability to visualize changes in cytokine networks with the onset and progression of disease or treatment is critical to advance our understanding of the immune response to pathogens. The recent Luminex® technology has revolutionized the simultaneous detection and quantitation of several cytokines and chemokines in clinical samples that are generally available in small quantities. We have applied this technology to analyze the plasma samples from patients who have either HIV-1 or HCV mono-infection or HIV-1/HCV co-infection and monitored the presence of 23 cytokines and chemokines. Of these, 8 (IFN-α2, IL-2, IL-3, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12p70, IL-15 and RANTES) cytokines were expressed at higher levels in the co-infected individuals. Interestingly, in case of HIV-1 mono-infected individuals, the levels of the proinflammatory cytokines IFN-γ and TNF-α were increased. Standard correlation clustering of the normalized data demonstrated unique plasma cytokine signatures for HIV-1/HCV co-infected individuals. These signatures were characterized not only by an up regulation of the aforementioned antiviral mediators but also by a marked down regulation in the chemokines Eotaxin and MIP-1α when compared to mono-infected individuals. Luminex®- based analyses have proven to be a powerful tool for therapeutic immunomonitoring, but may have an even greater impact in the discovery of the underlying immune response at all phases of infection. The study presented herein has potential to offer insight into the underlying mechanisms of immunopathogenesis of HIV-1/HCV co-infection.

Increased metallothionein gene expression, zinc, and zinc-dependent resistance to apoptosis in circulating monocytes during HIV viremia.

Circulating monocytes exhibit an apoptotic resistance phenotype during HIV viremia in association with increased MT expression. MTs are known to play an important role in zinc metabolism and immune function. We now show, in a cross-sectional study using peripheral monocytes, that expression of MT1 isoforms E, G, H, and X is increased significantly in circulating monocyte cells from HIV+ subjects during chronic viremic episodes as compared with uninfected subjects. This increase in expression is also observed during acute viremia following interruption of suppressive ART. Circulating monocytes from HIV+ donors were also found to have elevated zinc importer gene Zip8 expression in conjunction with elevated intracellular zinc levels in contrast to CD4(+)T-lymphocytes. In vitro HIV-1 infection studies with elutriated MDM confirm a direct relation between HIV-1 infection and increased MDM MT1 (isoform G) gene expression and increased intracellular zinc levels. A direct link between elevated zinc levels and apoptosis resistance was established using a cell-permeable zinc chelator TPEN, which reversed apoptosis resistance effectively in monocytes from HIV-infected to levels comparable with uninfected controls. Taken together, increases in MT gene expression and intracellular zinc levels may contribute directly to maintenance of an immune-activated monocyte by mediating an increased resistance to apoptosis during active HIV-1 viremia.

Inability of plasmacytoid dendritic cells to directly lyse HIV-infected autologous CD4+ T cells despite induction of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand.

The function of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDC) in chronic human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection remains controversial with regard to its potential for sustained alpha interferon (IFN-alpha) production and induction of PDC-dependent tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)-mediated cytotoxicity of HIV-infected cells. We address these areas by a study of chronically HIV-1-infected subjects followed through antiretroviral therapy (ART) interruption and by testing PDC cytolytic function against autologous HIV-infected CD4(+) T cells. Rebound in viremia induced by therapy interruption showed a positive association between TRAIL and viral load or T-cell activation, but comparable levels of plasma IFN-alpha/beta were found in viremic ART-treated and control subjects. While PDC from HIV-infected subjects expressed less interferon regulator factor 7 (IRF-7) and produced significantly less IFN-alpha upon Toll-like receptor 7/9 (TLR7/9) engagement than controls, membrane TRAIL expression in PDC from HIV(+) subjects was increased. Moreover, no significant increase in death receptor 5 (DR5) expression was seen in CD4(+) T cells from viremic HIV(+) subjects compared to controls or following in vitro infection/exposure to infectious and noninfectious virus or exogenous IFN-alpha, respectively. Although activated PDC killed the DR5-expressing HIV-infected Sup-T1 cell line, PDC did not lyse primary autologous HIV(+) CD4(+) T cells yet could provide accessory help for NK cells in killing HIV-infected autologous CD4(+) T cells. Taken together, our data show a lack of sustained high levels of soluble IFN-alpha in chronic HIV-1 infection in vivo and document a lack of direct PDC cytolytic activity against autologous infected or uninfected CD4(+) T cells.

Retention of viability, cytotoxicity, and response to IL-2, IL-15, or IFN-alpha by human NK cells after CD107a degranulation.

NK cells represent a critical component of the host innate immune response to viral infection and tumor transformation. Nevertheless, the fate of recently degranulated NK cells subsequent to a primary target cell interaction remains largely unexplored. Here, we investigated the long-term viability and killing potential of human NK cells following target cell lysis using live-sorting of CD107a-degranulated NK cells. We observed that sorted CD107a+ NK cells exhibited continued lytic potential against a wide variety of target cells, including tumor and virally infected target cells. CD107a-positive- and CD107a-negative-sorted NK cells displayed similar long-term viability, killing potential, and response to inflammatory cytokines such as IL-2, IL-15, and IFN-alpha. Interestingly, we observed that the CD107a signature is remarkably stable over time and that recently degranulated NK cells exhibit an amplification of CD107 expression immediately following a target cell interaction. Together, our data expand previous data showing that NK cells retain the capacity to kill multiple target cells in succession and reveal that NK viability, cytotoxicity, and response to inflammatory cytokines are not altered following a primary target cell interaction. Overall, our data argue for the strength of the NK cell compartment in the continuous surveillance of tumor and virally infected cells in the body and highlight the use of using CD107a expression as a stable marker for NK cytotoxicity.

Delayed loss of control of plasma lipopolysaccharide levels after therapy interruption in chronically HIV-1-infected patients.

OBJECTIVE: Increased circulating levels of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) have been demonstrated in HIV-1-infected progressors. We investigated the effect of antiretroviral therapy (ART) interruptions on plasma LPS levels. DESIGN AND METHODS: Overall, 77 individuals participated in this study (51 HIV-positive and 26 healthy). Ten out of 51 HIV-positive participants were viremic ART-naive patients and 41 out of 51 were chronically suppressed patients on ART (three or more drugs, CD4 cell count more than 400 cells/microl, HIV-1 RNA less than 500 copies/ml for more than 8 months, less than 50 copies/ml at recruitment) undergoing therapy interruption. The limulus amebocyte assay was used to measure plasma LPS levels; enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to measure plasma levels of endotoxin-core antibodies (EndoCAb), soluble (s)CD14, LPS-binding protein and IFN-alpha; immunoblotting to measure plasma gelsolin levels; and same day whole blood flow cytometry to measure levels of T-cell-activation markers (CD8/CD38, CD8/HLA-DR and CD3/CD95). RESULTS: Increases in viremia and T-cell-activation markers were observed during therapy interruptions. During short-term therapy interruptions of less than 12 weeks, no change in LPS levels was found, whereas negative associations between viral load and LPS levels (Spearman's Rho = -0.612, P = 0.0152), viral load and EndoCAb change (DeltaEndoCAb, correlation = -0.502, P = 0.0204), and between DeltaLPS and DeltaEndoCAb (correlation = -0.851, P = 0.0073) were observed. In contrast, increased LPS (P = 0.0171) and sCD14 (P < 0.0001) levels were observed during long-term therapy interruption of more than 12 weeks compared with levels during ART, together with no association between LPS and viral load or EndoCAb. No association between immune activation and LPS was evident at any time point. CONCLUSION: Increased plasma LPS levels were observed only after more than 12 weeks of ART interruption, despite presence of LPS-controlling host mechanisms.

Synthetic imidazoquinolines potently and broadly activate the cellular immune response of patients with cutaneous T-cell lymphoma: synergy with interferon-gamma enhances production of interleukin-12.

Advanced cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL) is typically associated with a variety of profound defects of cellular immunity, including depressed dendritic cell numbers and function. Therefore, we investigated the ability of synthetic imidazoquinolines, which are agonists for Toll-like receptors (TLRs) 7 and 8, to enhance in vitro the cell-mediated immunity of patients with leukemic CTCL and Sézary syndrome. Patients' peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) stimulated with the TLR7 agonist 3M-001 produced high levels of interferon (IFN)-alpha, and the TLR8 agonist 3M-002 potently induced predominantly interleukin (IL)-12 and IFN-gamma. Marked upregulation of CD69 and CD25 on natural killer (NK) cells and T cells from patients and an increase in NK cytolytic activity was also observed. We further demonstrate that priming of patients' PBMCs with IFN-gamma has the ability to synergistically enhance the production of IL-12 induced by a synthetic agonist for TLR8. The underlying mechanisms of increased IL-12 production in response to priming with IFN appears to involve an increase in IL-12 p35 and IL-12 p40 gene transcription and a decrease in IL-10 levels upon stimulation with the TLR8 agonist. Our data demonstrate the ability of imidazoquinolines to potently stimulate cellular immune responses of patients with CTCL and emphasizes the benefit of using a combination of biologic modifiers to further enhance their immune responses.

NK cell lysis of HIV-1-infected autologous CD4 primary T cells: requirement for IFN-mediated NK activation by plasmacytoid dendritic cells.

In vivo, several mechanisms have been postulated to protect HIV-1-infected cells from NK surveillance. In vitro, previous research indicates HIV-1-infected autologous CD4(+) primary T cells are resistant to NK lysis. We hypothesized that NK lysis of HIV-1-infected target cells would be augmented by the presence of accessory cells and/or accessory cell factors. In this study, we show that stimulation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDC) with the TLR9 agonist, CpG ODN 2216, triggered NK lysis of HIV-1-infected autologous CD4(+) primary T cells. PDC-stimulated NK lysis was dependent upon MHC class I (MHC-I) down-regulation on infected cells, and primary HIV-1 isolates that exhibited enhanced MHC-I down-regulation were more susceptible to NK-mediated lysis. PDC-stimulated NK lysis of HIV-1-infected autologous CD4(+) primary T cells was blocked by neutralizing Abs to type 1 IFN and was perforin/granzyme dependent. Overall, our data suggest that HIV-infected cells are not innately resistant to NK lysis, and that exogenous NK stimulation derived from PDC can trigger NK cytotoxicity against HIV-1-infected autologous CD4(+) primary T cells.

Baseline viral load and immune activation determine the extent of reconstitution of innate immune effectors in HIV-1-infected subjects undergoing antiretroviral treatment.

We analyzed dendritic cell (DC) and NK cell compartments in relation to CD4 recovery in 21 HIV-infected subjects followed to <50 copies/ml once starting antiretroviral therapy (ART) and observed for 52 wk of sustained suppression. Although CD4 counts increased in all subjects in response to ART, we observed a restoration of functional plasmacytoid DC (PDC) after 52 wk of sustained suppression under ART (from 1850 cells/ml to 4550 cells/ml) to levels comparable to controls (5120 cells/ml) only in subjects with a low baseline viral load, which also rapidly suppressed to <50 copies/ml upon

Early and delayed benefits of HIV-1 suppression: timeline of recovery of innate immunity effector cells.

OBJECTIVE: The kinetics of recovery for innate immune effectors following antiretroviral therapy are unknown. DESIGN AND METHODS: Multiple sequential cryopreserved samples (viremic and ART-suppressed) from 66 patients enrolled in the Women's Interagency HIV Study or Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study cohorts (median follow-up, 700 days) were analyzed to determine natural killer, dendritic and T-cell changes by flow cytometry. Functional parameters were also measured in a subset of samples. Changes over time were analyzed by mixed-effect modeling based on a linear spline with a single knot at 270 days. RESULTS: Following viral suppression, a rapid rise in CD4 and white blood cell counts and a decline in T-cell activation were confirmed. However, natural killer cell subsets increased after 270 days of therapy, with a negative effect by baseline CD4%. CD123+ plasmacytoid but not myeloid dendritic cells showed a trend to increase during the first 270 days with a positive effect of baseline CD4%; plasmacytoid dendritic cell-induced interferon-alpha production significantly increased by end of follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: The kinetics of natural killer and plasmacytoid dendritic cell recovery are markedly different from those of T-cell subsets, indicative of early and delayed benefits of suppressive regimens.

HIV-1 transmission and cytokine-induced expression of DC-SIGN in human monocyte-derived macrophages.

Dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule-3-grabbing nonintegrin (DC-SIGN) has been described as an attachment molecule for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) with the potential to mediate its transmission. We examined DC-SIGN expression in monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) and its role in viral transmission when MDM were exposed to interleukin (IL)-13, IL-4, or interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma). We show that IL-13 and IL-4 increase transcripts, total protein, and cell-surface expression of DC-SIGN in all MDM tested, IFN-gamma results ranged from no change to up-regulation of surface expression, and message and total protein were, respectively, induced in all and 86% of donors tested. Transmission experiments of HIV-1 X4 between cytokine-treated MDM to Sup-T1 cells showed no association between total transmission and DC-SIGN up-regulation. IL-4 but not IL-13 resulted in a less than twofold increase in MDM viral transmission to CD4+ T cells in spite of a fourfold up-regulation in DC-SIGN expression by either cytokine. In contrast, IFN-gamma treatment induced a decrease in total transmission by at least two-thirds, despite its induction of DC-SIGN. Soluble mannan resulted in a greater inhibition of viral transmission to CD4+ T cells than neutralizing anti-DC-SIGN monoclonal antibody (67-75% vs. 39-48%), supporting the role of mannose-binding receptors in viral transmission. Taken together, results show that DC-SIGN regulation in MDM does not singly predict the transmission potential of this cell type.

Sézary syndrome patients demonstrate a defect in dendritic cell populations: effects of CD40 ligand and treatment with GM-CSF on dendritic cell numbers and the production of cytokines.

Sézary syndrome (SzS) is an advanced form of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma associated with involvement of the peripheral blood by malignant T cells. The disease is defined by impaired cell-mediated immunity and the production of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and interleukin-2 (IL-2), possibly as a result of deficient IL-12 production. To understand the mechanism of this impairment, we examined the composition and function of dendritic cells and monocytes in the blood of SzS patients with different levels of peripheral blood tumor burden. Consistent with our previous observations, numbers of monocytes in SzS patients were comparable to numbers observed in healthy donors. In contrast, decreased IL-12 production correlated with a decrease in the numbers of CD11c(+) dendritic cells, which was particularly profound among patients with medium (20%-50% circulating malignant T cells) and high (more than 50% circulating malignant T cells) tumor burden. Furthermore, CD123(+) dendritic cells, major producers of IFN-alpha, were significantly diminished in SzS patients, regardless of the level of tumor burden. Granulocyte macrophage-colony-stimulating factor-treated patients experienced an increase in the number of dendritic cells but not in IFN-alpha or IL-12 production. However, in vitro stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from SzS patients with rCD40L and IFN-gamma significantly increased the production of IL-12. Thus, our results demonstrate a profound defect in circulating dendritic cells in SzS patients that may contribute to the pathogenesis of the cytokine disorders and to the depressed cellular immunity. Importantly, the ability of rCD40L to potently induce IL-12 production from monocytes and residual dendritic cells of SzS patients could potentially serve as an immune-restorative therapeutic agent.

Sustained impairment of IFN-gamma secretion in suppressed HIV-infected patients despite mature NK cell recovery: evidence for a defective reconstitution of innate immunity.

The impairment of NK cell functions in the course of HIV infection contributes to a decreased resistance against HIV and other pathogens. We analyzed the proportion of mature and immature NK cell subsets, and measured subsets of IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha-producing NK and T cells in viremic or therapy-suppressed HIV-infected subjects, and noninfected control donors. Viremic HIV(+) individuals had significantly lower proportions of mature CD3(-)/CD161(+)/CD56(+) NK cells and of IFN-gamma-producing NK cells compared with noninfected donors, independent of CD4(+) T cell counts. HIV-infected subjects with undetectable viral load recovered mature CD3(-)/CD161(+)/CD56(+) NK cells and cytotoxicity against tumor (K562) and HSV-infected target cells to percentages comparable with those of uninfected individuals, but their NK cells remained impaired in their ability to produce IFN-gamma. In parallel to these ex vivo findings, in vitro NK cell differentiation of CD34-positive cord blood precursors in the presence of R5 or X4 HIV-1 resulted in the production of NK cells with a normal mature phenotype, but lacking the ability to produce IFN-gamma, whereas coculture of uninfected PBMC with HIV failed to affect mature NK cell properties or IFN-gamma secretion. Altogether, our findings support the hypothesis that mature NK cell phenotype may be uncoupled from some mature functions following highly active antiretroviral therapy-mediated suppression of HIV-1, and indicate that relevant innate immune functions of NK cell subsets may remain altered despite effective viral suppression following antiretroviral treatment.

Persistent decreases in blood plasmacytoid dendritic cell number and function despite effective highly active antiretroviral therapy and increased blood myeloid dendritic cells in HIV-infected individuals.

Dendritic cells (DC) have an instrumental role in the activation and function of both innate and adaptive immune responses. In humans, at least two distinct DC subsets have been characterized based on phenotypic markers: the myeloid DC (MDC) and the plasmacytoid DC (PDC). Both subsets are critical producers of cytokines (IL-12 for MDC and type I/II IFNs for PDC) and are functionally different. We show in this study that HIV(+) individuals have a significant decrease in the number of the Lin(-)HLA-DR(+)CD123(+) and BDCA-2(+) PDC compared with uninfected donors (p = 0.0001). HIV(+) individuals also have a sustained impairment in viral-induced IFN-alpha production (p < 0.0001). The decrease of the PDC subsets did not correlate with CD4 count or viral load and was not reversed in subjects under virally suppressive treatment, suggesting an irreversible change after infection. By contrast, the absolute number and median frequency of MDC in HIV-infected individuals were similar to those observed in uninfected controls, while a significant decrease was present in subjects with >5000 HIV-1 copies/ml. The inverse association with viral load of the MDC number, but not of IFN-alpha secretion or the number of PDC, suggests a role for MDC in viral control. Our data suggest that DC subsets are differentially reconstituted during the immune recovery associated with antiviral therapy. The persistent impairment of certain DC subsets may result in a sustained defect in DC-mediated innate immune functions despite an effective treatment regimen.

Constitutive and induced expression of DC-SIGN on dendritic cell and macrophage subpopulations in situ and in vitro.

DC-SIGN is a C-type lectin, highly expressed on the surface of immature dendritic cells (DCs), that mediates efficient infection of T cells in trans by its ability to bind HIV-1, HIV-2, and SIV. In addition, the ability of DC-SIGN to bind adhesion molecules on surfaces of naïve T cells and endothelium also suggests its involvement in T-cell activation and DC trafficking. To gain further insights into the range of expression and potential functions of DC-SIGN, we performed a detailed analysis of DC-SIGN expression in adult and fetal tissues and also analyzed its regulated expression on cultured DCs and macrophages. First, we show that DC-SIGN expression is restricted to subsets of immature DCs in tissues and on specialized macrophages in the placenta and lung. There were no overt differences between DC-SIGN expression in adult and fetal tissues except that DC-SIGN expression in alveolar macrophages was only present after birth. Similarly, in tissues, DC-SIGN was observed primarily on immature (CD83-negative) DCs. Secondly, in the peripheral blood, we found expression of DC-SIGN on a small subset of BDCA-2+ plasmacytoid DC precursors (pDC2), concordant with our finding of large numbers of DC-SIGN-positive cells in allergic nasal polyps (previously shown to be infiltrated by DC2). Triple-label confocal microscopy indicated that DC-SIGN was colocalized with BDCA-2 and CD123 on DCs in nasal polyp tissue. Consistent with this finding is our observation that DC-SIGN can be up-regulated on monocyte-derived macrophages upon exposure to the Th2 cytokine, IL-13. In summary, our data demonstrate the relevant populations of DC and macrophages that express DC-SIGN in vivo where it may impact the efficiency of virus infection and indicate that DC-SIGN expression may be involved in the Th2 axis of immunity.