The New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS): the young adult periods.

This paper focuses on the findings and analyses, both qualitative and quantitative, of the young adult periods; early adult life (EAL) or ages 18 to 24, and young adult life (YAL) or ages 25 to 30. A summary is given of the sample and methods used in the study. Complexities of the life paths of the 133 subjects are traced, and the adolescent findings are discussed. In this middle class sample, the YAL period was found qualitatively to demand greater resolution of goals, life patterns and self-sufficiency than earlier periods.

Studies in temperament: a paradigm in psychosocial research.

Today the prevailing view in child psychiatry is the biopsychosocial model of child development, but this was not always the case. Prior to World War II, and even in the post-war period, the environment was considered the major determinant of the child's development; the role of the child's constitutional characteristics was overlooked. The theory of temperament, formulated by the author and her colleagues, holds that these constitutional characteristics are important in the child's development and interact with the environment. We tested the theory of temperament through a major longitudinal study, which required innovative approaches to data collection and analysis. Data obtained from the 133 children and accumulated over the past 35 years have been described in earlier publications. This paper traces the evolution of our methodology from the original concept to qualitative data collection and quantitative measurement. The methodological and theoretical dilemmas encountered in our research and some of the implications of our findings are also discussed.

Roundtable: what is temperament? Four approaches.

4 current approaches to understanding temperament are discussed in the roundtable. In an introductory overview, Goldsmith outlines some of the major convergences and divergences in the understanding of this concept. Theorists representing 4 positions--Goldsmith, Buss and Plomin, Rothbart, and Thomas and Chess--outline their views by responding to each of 6 questions: How do you define temperament and explain the boundaries of the concept? What are the elements of temperatment? How does the construct of temperament permit you to approach issues or organize data in ways that are possible only if this construct is invoked? How does temperament develop? To what extent do you consider temperament to be a personological versus a relational or an interactional construct? and How does your approach deal with issues of temperamental "difficulty"? In 2 commentaries on the theorists' answers, Hinde highlights differences among their positions and indicates issues that current theories of temperament must take into consideration, and McCall draws on common aspects to propose a synthesizing definition that draws on all 4 approaches.

Genesis and evolution of behavioral disorders: from infancy to early adult life.

The New York Longitudinal Study has followed the behavioral development of 133 subjects from early infancy to early adult life. Special attention has been given to the systematic clinical evaluation and follow-up of all subjects presenting any evidence of behavior disorder. The authors present incidence and outcome data, define the concept of temperament, and briefly discuss conceptual issues and empirical findings. They found the "goodness of fit" (consonance between the individual and the environment) concept useful in tracing developmental sequences. The authors summarize quantitative analyses identifying significant group correlations between antecedent variables and early adult outcome and suggest a tentative classification of the idiosyncratic factors also evident in the clinical course of individual subjects, with case illustrations.

Depression in childhood and adolescence. A prospective study of six cases.

Two cases of recurrent major depression, three cases of dysthymic disorder (depressive neurosis), and one of adjustment disorder with depressed mood beginning in childhood or adolescence have been identified in the 133 subjects of the New York Longitudinal Study. The prospective behavioral data from early infancy to early adult life in each of the six cases are summarized. Differences in etiology are emphasized and the implications for treatment indicated. There was no evidence for a separate clinical entity of depression for the childhood period. Review of the longitudinal data did not show a significant earlier life tendency to negative mood temperamentally. The dysthymic and adjustment disorder cases also did not show significant differences in environmental stresses or parental functioning from other clinical cases in the longitudinal study without depressive symptoms.

Temperament and follow-up to adulthood.

A follow-up of the New York longitudinal study at the 18-22-year period has been completed. Only one of the 133 subjects was not interviewed and evaluated. A temperament questionnaire for this age period has also been developed and given to 70 of the subjects. From the interview, ratings of temperament, adjustment and clinical psychiatric status were made. Statistical correlations showed significant relationships between 'difficult-easy' temperament at three and five years of age and early adult 'difficult-easy' temperament, adjustment, and presence or absence of a clinical psychiatric diagnosis. The importance of qualitative analyses of idiosyncratic developmental factors in individual cases is emphasized.

Selectivity of treatment modalities.

Consensus as to diagnostic definitions and criteria in Child Psychiatry is recent. Traditional "treatment" has been direct psychotherapy of child patient and mother. Despite growing precision of etiologic concepts and expansion of therapeutic approaches, many centres continue to define therapy in terms of their available techniques rather than the actual needs of the child. A brief review and definition of the major clinical syndromes is given. A glossary of the therapeutic modalities and their description is provided. Selection of treatment interventions is discussed in terms of diagnosis, severity, strengths of child patient, and the environmental modifications possible. Case illustrations are given. Periodic reassessment is essential to reselect therapeutic goals and determine choice as well as simultaneity versus sequentiality of therapeutic interventions.