Early childhood lead exposure is not reflected in adult bone lead: Results of a sub-cohort of African American women in the Cincinnati lead study.

INTRODUCTION: Pb in bone may serve as a biomarker for cumulative Pb dose over decades. We hypothesized that adult female bone Pb concentrations (BoPb) would be significantly associated with average childhood blood Pb levels (BlPb) in a birth cohort exposed to relatively high levels of Pb from Pb paint residues. METHODS: 94 African American women with a mean age of 32.7 years were recruited from the Cincinnati Lead Study (CLS) cohort. Subjects were born to women residing where there had been a high incidence of childhood Pb poisoning. Biomarkers of Pb exposure were serial BlPb concentrations spanning the prenatal period to approximately 6.5 years of age. BoPb was assessed in the tibia using the McMaster 109Cd K-XRF fourth generation system. Covariates included nutritional variables related to bone health. RESULTS: BlPb concentrations began to rise around 6 months of age and declined at later ages. Study participants were obese with a mean Body Mass Index of 34.4 and suboptimal vitamin D status as indicated by a mean 25-OH-D of 18.5 ng/ml. Average tibia Pb was -2.0 ± 8.6 µgPb/g bone mineral. In multiple linear regression, there was no significant association between BoPb at approximately age 30 and childhood cumulative BlPb(CumBlPb). DISCUSSION: Collectively, BoPb of this group of subjects was not detectable. We suggest that the reason these subjects' BoPb did not reflect their early exposure was that a significantly smaller proportion of Pb body burden resides in bone in young children. As the child grows what Pb there was in bone is diluted and any remaining signal is weak. It has been claimed that BoPb in older children, adolescents, and adults can recapitulate historical exposure to Pb during earlier development; however, in some populations, BoPb at later ages may not be an adequate biomarker to capture childhood exposure to Pb.

Feasibility of a109Cd-based portable XRF device for measuring skin iron concentration in anaemic andß-Thalassaemic patients.

Iron is an essential element vital for growth and development. The severe effects on the body due to iron deficiency or overload have prompted sustained research into accuratein vivoiron measurement techniques for the past several decades. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis of iron in the body has been investigated in this work because of the non-invasive nature of the technique. A system has been designed using a silicon drift detector to measure the low-energy iron Kαx-rays excited in the samples by the silver x-rays from109Cd of energy 22 keV and 25 keV. The source is contained within a tantalum shielding cap designed to reduce the spectral background. The system was calibrated against 3D printed polylactic acid (PLA) phantoms filled with solutions of iron at various concentrations. The iron x-ray signals were normalized to a nickel x-ray signal which improved the system's reproducibility. The 3D phantoms and normalisation resulted in a linear calibration line (p < 0.001 and r2 > 0.999). For a real-time measurement of 1800 s, the minimum detectable limit for the system was measured to be 1.35 ± 0.35 ppm which is achieved with a low radiation dose of 1.1 mSv to the skin surface. This low detection limit and low dose mean the system is feasible for application to human measurements in both iron deficiency and overload disease. The system will proceed to post-mortem validation studies prior toin vivosystem efficacy testing.

Quantifying Biophoton Emissions From Human Cells Directly Exposed to Low-Dose Gamma Radiation.

Biophoton emission leading to bystander effects (BEs) was shown in beta-irradiated cells; however, technical challenges precluded the analysis of the biophoton role in gamma-induced BEs. The present work was to design an experimental approach to determine if, what type, and how many biophotons could be produced in gamma-irradiated cells. Photon emission was measured in HCT116 p53+/+ cells irradiated with a total dose of 22 mGy from a cesium-137 source at a dose rate of 45 mGy/min. A single-photon detection unit was used and shielded with lead to reduce counts from stray gammas reaching the detector. Higher quantities of photon emissions were observed when the cells in a tissue culture vessel were present and being irradiated compared to a cell-free vessel. Photon emissions were captured at either 340 nm (in the ultraviolet A [UVA] range) or 610 nm. At the same cell density, radiation exposure time, and radiation dose, HCT116 p53+/+ cells emitted 2.5 times more UVA biophotons than 610-nm biophotons. For the first time, gamma radiation was shown to induce biophoton emissions from biological cells. As cellular emissions of UVA biophotons following beta radiation lead to BEs, the involvement of cellular emissions of the same type of UVA biophotons in gamma radiation-induced BEs is highly likely.

Elemental analysis in living human subjects using biomedical devices.

Today, patients undergoing dialysis are at low risk for aluminum-induced dementia. Workers are unlikely to experience cadmium-induced emphysema and the public's exposure to lead is an order of magnitude lower than in 1970. The research field of in vivo elemental analysis has played a role in these occupational and environmental health improvements by allowing the effects of people's chronic exposure to elements to be studied using non-invasive, painless, and relatively low-cost technology. From the early 1960s to the present day, researchers have developed radiation-based systems to measure the elemental content of organs at risk or storage organs. This reduces the need for (sometimes painful) biopsy and the risk of infection. Research and development has been undertaken on forty-nine in vivo measurement system designs. Twenty-nine different in vivo elemental analysis systems, measuring 22 different elements, have been successfully taken from design and testing through to human measurement. The majority of these systems employ either neutron activation analysis or x-ray fluorescence analysis as the basis of the measurement. In this review, we discuss eight of the successful systems, explaining the rationale behind their development, the methodology, the health data that has resulted from application of these tools, and provide our opinion on potential future technical developments of these systems. We close by discussing four technologies that may lead to new directions and advances in the whole field.

Self-identified gadolinium toxicity: comparison of gadolinium in bone and urine to healthy gadolinium-based contrast agent exposed volunteers.

OBJECTIVE: To report additional gadolinium bone and urine data that can contribute to gaps in knowledge with respect to gadolinium uptake and retention in the body. APPROACH: In vivo measurements of gadolinium retention in the tibia bone were performed on individuals self-identified as exhibiting symptoms of gadolinium toxicity as a result of receiving GBCA, as well as on control individuals. Gadolinium urine measurements for controls, symptomatic exposed, and non-symptomatic exposed were conducted through Mayo Medical Laboratories. MAIN RESULTS: Gadolinium bone concentration in the exposed group is significantly higher than the control group (p < 0.01), with a significant difference between symptomatic and non-symptomatic (p < 0.01), using a one-tailed t test on variance-weighted means. Gadolinium urine levels in both control subjects and non-symptomatic exposed subjects are significantly lower than symptomatic exposed subjects (p ≤ 0.05). A linear regression analysis for gadolinium urine levels and GBCA dose resulted in a positive linear relationship (R 2 = 0.91, p < 0.01). Gadolinium levels in urine and gadolinium concentration in bone were found to have a non-significant relationship (R 2 = 0.11, p = 0.3). SIGNIFICANCE: Significant differences in gadolinium levels in bone and urine are observed between individuals experiencing symptoms of gadolinium toxicity and for those who are not exhibiting symptoms. No correlation was observed between gadolinium in bone and gadolinium excreted in urine, suggesting that the retention of gadolinium in the body is complicated, involving multiple long-term storage sites.

Observed Deposition of Gadolinium in Bone Using a New Noninvasive in Vivo Biomedical Device: Results of a Small Pilot Feasibility Study.

Purpose To perform a preliminary evaluation of a noninvasive measurement system to assess gadolinium deposition in bone and to investigate the relationship between the administration of gadolinium-based contrast agents (GBCAs) and gadolinium retention in bone. Materials and Methods In vivo measurement of gadolinium retention in tibia bones was performed in 11 exposed subjects who previously received GBCAs (six exposed subjects were from a study performed 5 years previously involving injection of GBCAs in healthy volunteers; five exposed subjects had self-reported GBCA exposure), and 11 sex- and age-matched control subjects without a history of GBCA exposure. Each subject underwent one measurement of gadolinium retention in the tibia with x-ray fluorescence in a laboratory at McMaster University. A one-tailed t test was performed to compare gadolinium concentration in the exposed group with that in the control group. The relationship between the dose of GBCA administered and the gadolinium concentration measured in bone was analyzed with linear regression. Results Gadolinium concentration in bone was significantly higher in exposed subjects (mean, 1.19 µg Gd/g bone mineral ± 0.73 [standard deviation]) than in control subjects (mean, -1.06 µg Gd/g bone mineral ± 0.71) (P = .01). There was also a positive correlation between the dose of GBCA administered and the gadolinium concentration measured in bone (R2 = 0.41); gadolinium concentration in bone increased by 0.39 µg Gd/g bone mineral ± 0.14 per 1 mL of GBCA administered. Gadolinium was detected in bone up to 5 years after one GBCA administration. Conclusion This x-ray fluorescence system is capable of measuring gadolinium deposition in bone noninvasively in vivo. Gadolinium can be retained in bone after one dose of GBCA in healthy subjects. © RSNA, 2017 Online supplemental material is available for this article.

A Pilot Study Measuring Aluminum in Bone in Alzheimer's Disease and control Subjects Using in vivo Neutron Activation Analysis.

Aluminum, being the most abundant metal in the earth's crust, is widely distributed in the environment, and is routinely taken up by the human body through ingestion and inhalation. Aluminum is not considered an essential element and it can be toxic in high concentrations. Most of the body burden of aluminum is stored in the bones. Aluminum has been postulated to be involved in the causality of Alzheimer's disease. A system for non-invasive measurement of bone aluminum using the in vivo neutron activation analysis technique has been developed and previously reported in the literature by our group. The results are reported as ratio of Al to Ca in order to eliminate the variations in beam parameters and geometry as well as the physical variations among the subjects such as size of the hand and bone structure. This pilot study included 30 subjects, 15 diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in mild and moderate stages and 15 control subjects, all of whom were 60 years of age or older. The mean value of aluminum for the control group was 2.7±8.2µg Al/g Ca (inverse-variance weighted mean 3.5±0.9µg Al/g Ca) and for the Alzheimer's disease subjects was 12.5±13.1µg Al/g Ca (inverse-variance weighted mean 7.6±0.6µg Al/g Ca). The difference between the mean of the Alzheimer's disease group and the mean of the control group was 9.8±15.9µg Al/g Ca, with a p-value of 0.02. An age-dependent linear increase in bone aluminum concentration was observed for all subjects. The difference in serum aluminum levels between the two groups did not reach significance.

A History of In Vivo Neutron Activation Analysis in Measurement of Aluminum in Human Subjects.

Aluminum, as an abundant metal, has gained widespread use in human life, entering the body predominantly as an additive to various foods and drinking water. Other major sources of exposure to aluminum include medical, cosmetic, and occupational routes. As a common environmental toxin, with well-known roles in several medical conditions such as dialysis encephalopathy, aluminum is considered a potential candidate in the causality of Alzheimer's disease. Aluminum mostly accumulates in the bone, which makes bone an indicator of the body burden of aluminum and an ideal organ as a proxy for the brain. Most of the techniques developed for measuring aluminum include bone biopsy, which requires invasive measures, causing inconvenience for the patients. There has been a considerable effort in developing non-invasive approaches, which allow for monitoring aluminum levels for medical and occupational purposes in larger populations. In vivo neutron activation analysis, a method based on nuclear activation of isotopes of elements in the body and their subsequent detection, has proven to be an invaluable tool for this purpose. There are definite challenges in developing in vivo non-invasive techniques capable of detecting low levels of aluminum in healthy individuals and aluminum-exposed populations. The following review examines the method of in vivo neutron activation analysis in the context of aluminum measurement in humans focusing on different neutron sources, interference from other activation products, and the improvements made in minimum detectable limits and patient dose over the past few decades.

Development of a (170)Tm source for mercury monitoring studies in humans using XRF.

The goals of the present study were to develop a (170)Tm radioisotope and generate a K XRF spectrum of mercury. Thulium foil and thulium oxide powder were both tested for impurities and the latter was found to be a better prospect for further studies. The (170)Tm radioisotope was developed from thulium oxide powder following the method of disolution and absorption. A suitable source holder and collimator were also designed based on Monte Carlo simulations. Using the radioisotope thus developed, a mercury XRF spectrum was successfully generated.

Physiologically based modeling of lead kinetics: a pilot study using data from a Canadian population.

The Canadian population is currently subject to low, chronic lead exposure and an understanding of its effects is of great significance to the population's health. Such low exposure is difficult to measure directly; approximation by physiologically based modeling may provide a preferable approach to population analysis. The O'Flaherty model of lead kinetics is based on an age-dependent approach to human growth and development and devotes special attention to bone turnover rates. Because lead is a bone-seeking element, the model was deemed ideal for such an analysis. Sample from 263 individuals of various ages from the Greater Toronto Area were selected to evaluate the applicability of the current version of the O'Flaherty model to populations with low lead exposure. For each individual, the input value of lead exposure was calibrated to match the output value of cortical bone lead to the individual's measured tibia lead concentration; the outputs for trabecular bone, blood, and plasma lead concentrations obtained from these calibrations were then compared with the subjects' measured calcaneus, blood, and serum lead concentrations, respectively. This indicated a need for revision of the model parameters; those for lead binding in blood and lead clearance from blood to bone were adjusted and new outputs were obtained in the same fashion as before. Model predictions of trabecular lead concentration did not agree with measurements in the calcaneus. The outputs for blood and plasma lead concentrations were highly scattered and, on an individual level, inconsistent with corresponding measurements; however, the general trends of the outputs matched those of the measurements reasonably well, which indicates that the revised blood lead binding and lead clearance parameters may be useful in future studies. Overall, the analysis showed that with the revisions to the model discussed here, the model should be a useful tool in the analysis of human lead kinetics and body burden in populations characterized by low, chronic exposure to lead from the general environment.

Identification of oxygen-19 during in vivo neutron activation analysis of water phantoms.

Hand bone equivalent phantoms (250 ml) carrying selenium in various amounts were irradiated and counted for in vivo neutron activation analysis (IVNAA) by employing a 4π NaI(TI) based detection system. During the analysis of counting data, a feature at a higher energy than the gamma ray peak from (77m)Se (0.162 MeV) was observed at 0.197 MeV. Further investigations were made by preparing water phantoms containing only de-ionized water in 250 ml and 1034 ml quantities. Neutrons were produced by the (7)Li(p,n)(7)Be reaction using the high beam current Tandetron accelerator. Phantoms were irradiated at a fixed proton energy of 2.3 MeV and proton currents of 400 µA and 550 µA for 30 s and 22 s respectively. The counting data saved using the 4π NaI(TI) detection system for 10 s intervals in anticoincidence, coincidence and singles modes of detection were analyzed. Areas under gamma peaks at energies 0.197 MeV and 1.357 MeV were computed and half-lives from the number of counts for the two peaks were established. It was concluded that during neutron activation of water phantoms, oxygen-18 is activated, producing short-lived radioactive 19O having T(1/2) = 26.9 s. Induced activity from 19O may contribute spectral interference in the gamma ray spectrum. This effect may need to be taken into account by researchers while carrying out IVNAA of biological subjects.

Bone lead (Pb) content at the tibia is associated with thinner distal tibia cortices and lower volumetric bone density in postmenopausal women.

Conflicting evidence suggests that bone lead or blood lead may reduce areal bone mineral density (BMD). Little is known about how lead at either compartment affects bone structure. This study examined postmenopausal women (N=38, mean age 76 ± 8, body mass index (BMI): 26.74 ± 4.26 kg/m(2)) within the Hamilton cohort of the Canadian Multicentre Osteoporosis Study (CaMos), measuring bone lead at 66% of the non-dominant leg and at the calcaneus using (109)Cadmium X-ray fluorescence. Volumetric BMD and structural parameters were obtained from peripheral quantitative computed tomography images (200 µm in-plane resolution, 2.3 ± 0.5mm slice thickness) of the same 66% site and of the distal 4% site of the tibia length. Blood lead was measured using atomic absorption spectrometry and blood-to-bone lead partition coefficients (PBB, log ratio) were computed. Multivariable linear regression examined each of bone lead at the 66% tibia, calcaneus, blood lead and PBB as related to each of volumetric BMD and structural parameters, adjusting for age and BMI, diabetes or antiresorptive therapy. Regression coefficients were reported along with 95% confidence intervals. Higher amounts of bone lead at the tibia were associated with thinner distal tibia cortices (-0.972 (-1.882, -0.061) per 100 µg Pb/g of bone mineral) and integral volumetric BMD (-3.05 (-6.05, -0.05) per µg Pb/g of bone mineral). A higher PBB was associated with larger trabecular separation (0.115 (0.053, 0.178)), lower trabecular volumetric BMD (-26.83 (-50.37, -3.29)) and trabecular number (-0.08 (-0.14, -0.02)), per 100 µg Pb/g of bone mineral after adjusting for age and BMI, and remained significant while accounting for diabetes or use of antiresorptives. Total lead exposure activities related to bone lead at the calcaneus (8.29 (0.11, 16.48)) and remained significant after age and antiresorptives-adjustment. Lead accumulated in bone can have a mild insult on bone structure; but greater partitioning of lead in blood versus bone revealed more dramatic effects on both microstructure and volumetric BMD.

Factors influencing uncertainties of in vivo bone lead measurement using a (109)Cd K X-ray fluorescence clover leaf geometry detector system.

A (109)Cd K X-ray fluorescence (KXRF) measurement system consisting of four detectors in clover-leaf geometry is a non-invasive, low-radiation-dose method of measuring bone lead concentration. Its high precision in estimating the bone lead content makes it a promising tool for the determination of the low levels of lead currently found in the general population. After developing the clover-leaf geometry system, the system was used for the first time in a major survey in 2008 to measure the lead levels of 497 smelter employees (an occupationally exposed group with high lead levels). Since the delivered effective dose of the bone lead system in clover-leaf geometry is small (on the order of nSv), the technique can be used to measure the bone lead of sensitive populations such as the elderly and children. This detector system was used from 2009 to 2011, in a pilot study that measured the bone lead concentration of 263 environmentally exposed individuals (termed the EG group) residing in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. In this paper, the factors that influence uncertainties in lead content in tibia (cortical bone) and calcaneus (trabecular bone) are discussed based on gender, age, and body mass index (BMI) by using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and multiple linear regression models. Results from the two study groups (the EG group versus the occupationally exposed smelter employees) are compared where appropriate (i.e. for males older than 20). Results from univariate analyses showed that females have higher tibia uncertainty compared to males. We observed significant differences for both calcaneus and tibia uncertainty measures (p < 0.0005) among different age groups, where the uncertainties were highest in the lowest age group (<11 years). Lastly, and perhaps most significantly, we found that the product of source activity and measurement time influenced the precision of measurements greatly, and that this factor alone could account for the higher uncertainties observed for the male cohort of the EG group versus the smelter employees.

The estimation of the rates of lead exchange between body compartments of smelter employees.

The overwhelming proportion of the mass of lead (Pb) is stored in bone and the residence time of Pb in bone is much longer than that in other tissues. Hence, in a metabolic model that we used to solve the differential equations governing the transfer of lead between body compartments, three main compartments are involved: blood (as a transfer compartment), cortical bone (tibia), and trabecular bone (calcaneus). There is a bidirectional connection between blood and the other two compartments. A grid search chi-squared minimization method was used to estimate the initial values of lead transfer rate values from tibia (λTB) and calcaneus (λCB) to blood of 209 smelter employees whose bone lead measurements are available from 1994, 1999, and 2008, and their blood lead level from 1967 onwards (depending on exposure history from once per month to once per year), and then the initial values of kinematic parameters were used to develop multivariate models in order to express λTB and λCB as a function of employment time, age, body lead contents and their interaction. We observed a significant decrease in the transfer rate of lead from bone to blood with increasing body lead contents. The model was tested by calculating the bone lead concentration in 1999 and 2008, and by comparing those values with the measured ones. A good agreement was found between the calculated and measured tibia/calcaneus lead values. Also, we found that the transfer rate of lead from tibia to blood can be expressed solely as a function of cumulative blood lead index.

Monitoring bone strontium intake in osteoporotic females self-supplementing with strontium citrate with a novel in-vivo X-ray fluorescence based diagnostic tool.

Ten female volunteers were recruited as part of the Ryerson and McMaster University Strontium (Sr) in Bone Research Study to have their bone Sr levels measured as they self-supplemented with Sr supplements of their choice. Of the ten volunteers, nine were suffering from osteopenia and/or osteoporosis. Non-invasive bone Sr measurements were performed using an in vivo x-ray fluorescence (IVXRF) I-125 based system. Thirty minute measurements were taken at the finger and ankle, representing primarily cortical and trabecular bone, respectively. For analysis, the 14.2keV Sr K-alpha peak normalized to the Coherent peak at 35.5keV was used. Baseline readings, representing natural bone Sr levels were acquired since all volunteers had no previous intake of Sr based supplements or medications. Once Sr supplements were started, a 24h reading was taken, followed by frequent measurements ranging from weekly, biweekly to monthly. The longest volunteer participation was 1535days. The mean baseline Sr signal observed for the group was 0.42±0.13 and 0.39±0.07 for the finger and ankle, respectively. After 24h, the mean Sr signal rose to 1.43±1.12 and 1.17±0.51, for the finger and ankle, respectively, representing a statistically significant increase (p=0.0043 & p=0.000613). Bone Sr levels continued to increase throughout the length of the study. However the Sr signal varied widely between the individuals such that after three years, the highest Sr signal observed was 28.15±0.86 for the finger and 26.47±1.22 for the ankle in one volunteer compared to 3.15±0.15 and 4.46±0.36, for the finger and ankle, respectively in another. Furthermore, while it was previously reported by our group, that finger bone Sr levels may plateau within two years, these results suggest otherwise, indicating that bone Sr levels will continue to rise at both bone sites even after 4years of Sr intake.

Accumulation of bone strontium measured by in vivo XRF in rats supplemented with strontium citrate and strontium ranelate.

Strontium ranelate is an approved pharmacotherapy for osteoporosis in Europe and Australia, but not in Canada or the United States. Strontium citrate, an alternative strontium salt, however, is available for purchase over-the-counter as a nutritional supplement. The effects of strontium citrate on bone are largely unknown. The study's objectives were 1) to quantify bone strontium accumulation in female Sprague Dawley rats administered strontium citrate (N=7) and compare these levels to rats administered strontium ranelate (N=6) and vehicle (N=6) over 8 weeks, and 2) to verify an in vivo X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) system for measurement of bone strontium in the rat. Daily doses of strontium citrate and strontium ranelate were determined with the intention to achieve equivalent amounts of elemental strontium. However, post-hoc analyses of each strontium compound conducted using energy dispersive spectrometry microanalysis revealed a higher elemental strontium concentration in strontium citrate than strontium ranelate. Bone strontium levels were measured at baseline and 8 weeks follow-up using a unique in vivo XRF technique previously used in humans. XRF measurements were validated against ex vivo measurements of bone strontium using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Weight gain in rats in all three groups was equivalent over the study duration. A two-way ANOVA was conducted to compare bone strontium levels amongst the three groups. Bone strontium levels in rats administered strontium citrate were significantly greater (p<0.05) than rats administered strontium ranelate and vehicle. ANCOVA analyses were performed with Sr dose as a covariate to account for differences in strontium dosing. The ANCOVA revealed differences in bone strontium levels between the strontium groups were not significant, but that bone strontium levels were still very significantly greater than vehicle.

Nonlinearity in the relationship between bone lead concentrations and CBLI for lead smelter employees.

494 smelter employees from New Brunswick participated in a bone lead survey conducted by McMaster University in 2008, using the four element "clover-leaf" geometry germanium detector system. The employees were measured at two different bone sites, tibia and calcaneus, each measurement lasting 30 minutes. Scattered photons, including Pb X-rays, were collected by the germanium detectors located behind the ¹°9Cd source. A strong positive correlation was observed between tibia and calcaneus lead concentrations. Having been provided with blood lead levels, a cumulative blood lead index (CBLI) was generated. The employees were classified into four groups based on their date of hire, and their CBLI levels were compared to their tibia and calcaneus lead concentrations in the different groups. The slopes of bone Pb versus CBLI varied amongst groups, with those hired earliest showing the steepest slopes. This could be taken to imply a non-linearity in the uptake of Pb by bone from blood. In this paper, the association of the bone lead concentrations versus CBLI has been expressed by a polynomial function for the whole group of employees.

In vivo quantification of bone-fluorine by delayed neutron activation analysis: a pilot study of hand-bone-fluorine levels in a Canadian population.

Humans can be exposed to fluorine (F) through their diet, occupation, environment and oral dental care products. Fluorine, at proper dosages, is believed to have positive effects by reducing the incidence of dental caries, but fluorine toxicity can occur when people are exposed to excessive quantities of fluorine. In this paper we present the results of a small pilot in vivo study on 33 participants living in Southwestern Ontario, Canada. The mean age of participants was 45 ± 18 years with a range of 20-87 years. The observed calcium normalized hand-bone-fluorine concentrations in this small pilot study ranged from 1.1 to 8.8 mg F/g Ca. Every person measured in this study had levels of fluorine in bone above the detection limit of the system. The average fluorine concentration in bone was found to be 3.5 ± 0.4 mg F/g Ca. No difference was observed in average concentration for men and women. In addition, a significant correlation (r(2) = 0.55, p < 0.001) was observed between hand-bone-fluorine content and age. The amount of fluorine was found to increase at a rate of 0.084 ± 0.014 mg F/g Ca per year. There was no significant difference observed in this small group of subjects between the accumulation rates in men and women. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time data from in vivo measurement of fluorine content in humans by neutron activation analysis have been presented. The data determined by this technique were found to be consistent with results from ex vivo studies from other countries. We suggest that the data demonstrate that this low risk non-invasive diagnostic technique will permit the routine assessment of bone-fluorine content with potential application in the study of clinical bone-related diseases. This small study demonstrated that people in Southern Ontario are exposed to fluoride in measureable quantities, and that fluoride can be seen to accumulate in bone with age. However, all volunteers were found to have levels below those expected with clinical fluorosis, and only one older subject was found to have levels comparable with preclinical exposure.

Blood lead levels and cumulative blood lead index (CBLI) as predictors of late neurodevelopment in lead poisoned children.

OBJECTIVE: To find the best lead exposure assessment marker for children. METHODS: We recruited 11 children, calculated a cumulative blood lead index (CBLI) for the children, measured their concurrent BLL, assessed their development, and measured their bone lead level. RESULTS: Nine of 11 children had clinically significant neurodevelopment problems. CBLI and current blood lead level, but not the peak lead level, were significantly or marginally negatively associated with the full-scale IQ score. CONCLUSION: Lead exposure at younger age significantly impacts a child's later neurodevelopment. CBLI may be a better predictor of neurodevelopment than are current or peak blood lead levels.

In vivo measurement of lead in the bones of smelter workers using the four-element 'clover-leaf' geometry detector system.

A total of 497 smelter employees from New Brunswick participated in a bone lead survey conducted by McMaster University in 2008 to examine the efficiency of lead exposure control programmes and a four-element 'clover-leaf' geometry detector system. Nearly 42% of the subjects had participated in both the previous surveys performed in 1994 and 1999. After developing the clover-leaf geometry system in 2006, the reliability of the system based on examining the consistency of four detectors and improving the minimum detection limit (MDL) was tested for the first time in 2008 by measuring lead levels of a large population that was occupationally exposed to lead. The Z test was used to study the distribution of the lead concentration calculated based on K(α) and K(ß) lead x-rays, where the results were broadly consistent with a normal distribution criterion, with relatively small means and standard deviations of between 1 and 2. The MDL of the clover-leaf geometry system was improved on average for tibia and calcaneus by a factor of 3.1 compared to the 1999 and 1994 surveys in which a conventional system (one detector) was used. Furthermore, by comparing the results of the three mentioned surveys, the 2008 results were found to represent the highest precision.