Be/Si/Al multilayer mirrors as the most promising optical elements for spectroscopy and imaging in the spectral region of 17-32†nm.

The reflective and structural parameters of Be/Si/Al multilayer mirrors have been studied. The extent of stability of their X-ray optical characteristics has been demonstrated during storage in air for 4 years and during vacuum annealing at temperatures up to 100°C. A high reflectance of 62.5% was obtained, together with a spectral selectivity of λ/Δλ≈59 at a wavelength of 17.14 nm and 34%, with λ/Δλ ≈ 31 at a wavelength of 31.3 nm. It was shown that Si interlayers reduce the interlayer roughness from 0.45 to 0.20 nm.

Influence of Mo interlayers on the microstructure of layers and reflective characteristics of Ru/Be multilayer mirrors.

The influence of Mo interlayers on the microstructure of films and boundaries, and the reflective characteristics of Ru/Be multilayer mirrors (MLM) were studied by X-ray reflectometry and diffractometry, and secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). An increase in the reflection coefficients of MLM at a wavelength of 11.4 nm to record values of R = 72.2% and FWHM to Δλ1/2 = 0.38 nm is shown. The effect of interlayers on the structural and reflective characteristics of MLM is explained by the barrier properties of the Mo layers, which prevent the mutual mixing of the Ru and Be layers, which leads to the formation of beryllides and a decrease in the X-ray optical contrast at the boundaries.

High-aperture EUV microscope using multilayer mirrors and a 3D reconstruction algorithm based on z-tomography.

The article is devoted to the development of an EUV microscope using a wavelength of 13.84 nm. Due to the use of a mirror lens with a large numerical aperture, NA = 0.27, and a short depth of focus, it has been possible to carry out z-tomography of bio-samples for the first time with this type of microscope. A 3D image was reconstructed, and a pixel resolution of 140 nm was obtained. A new simple algorithm for the 3D reconstruction of absorption images from z-tomography data has been proposed that takes into account lens aberrations and a point spread function. The algorithm reduces the inverse absorption task to the corresponding well-studied task of fluorescence microscopy, with an error of 10% for cells up to 10 µm thick.

Highly reflective Ru/Y multilayer mirrors for the spectral range of 9-11†nm.

The results of the investigation of the reflective characteristics of multilayer mirrors based on Ru/Y are presented. Reflection coefficients at the level of 38.5% at an operating wavelength of 9.4 nm. It is shown that the deposition of B4C barrier layers onto Y layers makes it possible to significantly increase the reflection coefficient compared to structures without barrier layers. A reflectance of 54% was obtained for mirrors optimized for 11.4 nm, which is close to the theoretical limit for these materials.

Highly reflective Ru/Sr multilayer mirrors for wavelengths 9-12†nm.

The results of investigations of Ru/Sr multilayer coatings optimized for the spectral range of 9-12 nm are presented in this Letter. Such mirrors are promising optical elements for solar astronomy and for the development of beyond extreme ultraviolet (BEUV) lithography. A near-normal incidence reflectivity of up to 62.3% (λ = 11.4 nm) right after the synthesis is measured. The reflection coefficient decreases to 56.8% after five days of storage in air with a subsequent stabilization of its value. At a wavelength of λ = 9.34 nm, the reflection coefficient is 48.6% after two months of storage in air. To date, to the best of our knowledge, this is the highest reflectivity measured in this spectral range. The possibility of further increasing the reflectivity is discussed.

Influence of ion-beam etching by Ar ions with an energy of 200-1000 eV on the roughness and sputtering yield of a single-crystal silicon surface.

The behavior of sputtering yield and the surface roughness of monocrystalline silicon of orientations ⟨100⟩, ⟨110⟩, and ⟨111⟩ under the ion-beam bombardment by neutralized Ar ions with energies of 200-1000 eV is studied. The significant dependence (modulation) of sputtering yield on incidence angle due to crystalline structure is observed. It is shown that a sharp increase in the sputtering yield and a decrease in the effective surface roughness at energies above 400 eV occurs. At energies of more than 400 eV for orientations ⟨100⟩, ⟨110⟩, and ⟨111⟩ at normal ion incidence, smoothing of the effective roughness in the range of spatial frequencies ν∈[4.9⋅10-2-6.3⋅101µm-1] up to a value of 0.17 nm is observed. This makes it possible to use the ion-beam etching technique for finishing polishing, aspherization, and correction of local shape errors of single-crystal silicon substrates, which are of the greatest interest for synchrotrons of the 3rd+ and 4th generation and x-ray free electron lasers.

High-resolution laboratory reflectometer for the study of x-ray optical elements in the soft and extreme ultraviolet wavelength ranges.

A high-resolution laboratory reflectometer designed for operation in the soft x-ray (SXR) and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) ranges is described. High spectral resolution, up to 0.028 nm, in a wide spectral range is achieved due to the Czerny-Turner monochromator. A laser plasma generated by irradiating a solid-state target with a focused laser beam (wavelength 1.06 µm, pulse energy 0.5 J, duration 4 ns, and pulse repetition rate 10 Hz) is used as a source of SXR and EUV radiation. The goniometer allows the study of curved optical elements with an aperture up to NA = 0.5 and a diameter of up to 500 mm. The methods providing high efficiency of the optical system and spectral resolution in a wide range of wavelengths are described in detail. The problem of taking into account high orders in the recorded spectra of a laser plasma is discussed. A comparison of the measurement results with the described reflectometer and the optics beamline at the BESSY-II synchrotron is given.

Single-channel method for measuring the reflectance spectra of grazing incidence mirrors in the extreme ultraviolet range.

This Letter presents a one-channel method of measurements of a grazing incidence reflection coefficient. The idea is to use the quasi-flat field extreme ultraviolet spectrometer to produce direct and reflected from the sample images of the spectral lines simultaneously at the same detector matrix. The analysis of a set of spectral lines in the working spectral range of the spectrometer gives the spectral dependence of the reflection coefficient. The results of the refection coefficient measurements for a plane ruthenium mirror for grazing angles of 6° and 10° in the spectral range 15-40 nm are presented.

X-ray scattering by the fused silica surface etched by low-energy Ar ions.

Anomalously high x-ray scattering at a wavelength of 0.154 nm by super-polished substrates of fused silica, which were etched by the argon ions with the energy of 300 eV, is detected. The scattering intensity increases monotonically with increasing of the etching depth. The effect is explained by the scattering on the volume inhomogeneities with the lateral size greater than 0.5 µm of the subsurface "damaged" layer. The concentration of volume inhomogeneities increases with the increase of the fluence of argon ions, but the concentration of implanted argon atoms in the layer quickly reaches the maximum value and then begins a trend of going down. The thickness of the "damaged" layer is approximately equal to the penetration depth of the Ar atoms and can be directly determined from the x-ray specular reflection. It is shown that the presence of volume inhomogeneities of the subsurface "damaged" layer does not affect the geometric roughness of the surface. The observed effect imposes limitations on the usage of grazing incidence x-ray optics without reflective coatings and of the diffuse x-ray scattering (DXRS) method for studying the substrate roughness. A new method that potentially enables to evaluate the applicability of the DXRS method in practice is proposed.

Ultrasmooth beryllium substrates for solar astronomy in extreme ultraviolet wavelengths.

The paper describes a multistage method of forming ultrasmooth substrates based on bulk beryllium. Such substrates are suggested to be used for multilayer extreme ultraviolet mirrors of spacecraft missions on solar corona investigations in the spectral range 17.1-58.4 nm. The technique for chemical nickel plating of the sample surface is described. The process parameters that provide the formation of an amorphous film with a thickness of about 100 microns are presented. The results of mechanical polishing are shown. The effective roughness of 1.3 nm is obtained, which is twice lower than one achievable for a nickel-free beryllium surface. The applicability of the ion beam figuring technique is demonstrated: the initial surface roughness of a nickel film after etching with Ar ions (Eion=200-800 eV) to a depth of 250 nm does not deteriorate. The amorphous silicon film deposition followed by ion polishing made it possible to reduce the microroughness (atomic force microscope frame 2×2 µm) to σ2×2=0.15 nm from the initial σ2×2=0.46 nm. The reflectivity of multilayer mirrors deposited on these substrates turned out to be close to the values obtained on "witnesses" (supersmooth silicon substrates). Moreover, for the Mg/MoSi2 mirror optimized for the wavelength λ=58.4 nm the values of the reflection coefficients of structures on the beryllium substrate and on the silicon "witness" were identical (about 28%).

Investigation of the thermo stability of aluminum thin-film filters with protective MoSi2 cap layers.

Aluminum thin-film spectral filters are widely used in telescopes for space observations of the Sun in the extreme ultraviolet range of wavelengths. The main purpose of film filters is to block radiation in the UV, visible, and near-IR spectral ranges. In connection with the development of new projects for the observation of the Sun from close distances, the thermal stability of the entrance film filter is an important characteristic. In this paper, the thermal stability of Al films with 2.5 nm thick MoSi2 protective cap layers has been studied. MoSi2 was chosen as a coating material because MoSi2 caps effectively protect the Al film from oxidation and simultaneously increase the mechanical strength of the Al film. Vacuum annealing of MoSi2/Al/MoSi2 films was carried out at temperatures up to 300°C. It has been demonstrated that at an annealing temperature of more than 200°C for 24 h, a noticeable decrease in the blocking properties of the MoSi2/Al/MoSi2 film is observed in the visible wavelength range, which is caused by the appearance of semi-transparent crystalline silicon dendritic structures that are tens of micrometers in size in the film. In the annealed area of the film specimen, the intermetallic Al12Mo phase was detected by electron diffraction structure analysis, indicating a possible reason for the appearance of silicon atoms needed for dendrite growth as a result of the chemical interaction of Al and MoSi2. Due to the requirements for a high degree of visible radiation blocking (106 to 107 times), the appearance of even one dendritic structure significantly reduces the blocking properties of the film filter and is, therefore, not permissible. Based on the measurement of the transmission of MoSi2-2.5 nm/Al-72 nm/MoSi2-2.5 nm films at 633 nm for isothermal annealing at 200°C-250°C, the activation energy for the formation of dendritic structures (E=1.55±0.1 eV) was measured and the maximum permissible film temperature (130°C) at which dendritic structures did not appear during a 5-year mission was predicted.

Polishing the surface of a z-cut KDP crystal by neutralized argon ions.

The sputtering yield and dynamics of the surface roughness of the potassium dihydrogenphosphate-KH2PO4 (KDP) crystal z-cut was initially polished by precision micromilling with a diamond cutter, after which surface treatment by neutralized Ar ions was studied. The sputtering yield turned out to be noticeably higher than the values for materials that are amenable to ion polishing (fused silica, ULE, Zerodur, etc.), but the polishing effect at angles of incidence of 0°, 30°, and 45° was found. A record value of the effective surface roughness in the spatial frequencies range of ν∈[4.9·10-2-6.3·101 µm-1]σeff=0.61 nm was obtained.

Influence of barrier interlayers on the performance of Mo/Be multilayer mirrors for next-generation EUV lithography.

A comparative study was carried out of the structure and reflection performance of four types of multilayer mirror for extreme ultraviolet lithography at 11.2 nm; these were a pure Mo/Be structure and three Mo/Be-based structures with thin B4C, C and Si interlayers. It was demonstrated that Mo/Be mirrors show maximum reflectance at normal incidence, while maximum structural perfection is shown by Mo/Be/Si mirrors. The introduction of B4C and C layers into the structure increases the interlayer roughness and reduces the sharpness of the interfaces, adversely affecting the target coating characteristics. Results are presented for studies using four techniques: X-ray reflectometry, small-angle X-ray scattering, atomic force microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy.

Thin film multilayer filters for solar EUV telescopes.

Al, with a passband in the wavelength range of 17-60 nm, and Zr, with a passband in the wavelength range of 6.5-17 nm, thin films on a support grid or support membrane are frequently used as UV, visible, and near-IR blocking filters in solar observatories. Although they possess acceptable optical performance, these filters also have some shortcomings such as low mechanical strength and low resistance to oxidation. These shortcomings hinder meeting the requirements for filters of future telescopes. We propose multilayer thin film filters on the basis of Al, Zr, and other materials with improved characteristics. It was demonstrated that stretched multilayer films on a support grid with a mesh size up to 5 mm can withstand vibration loads occurring during spacecraft launch. A large mesh size is preferable for filters of high-resolution solar telescopes, since it allows image distortion caused by light diffraction on the support grid to be avoided. We have investigated the thermal stability of Al/Si and Zr/Si multilayers assuming their possible application as filters in the Intergelioprobe project, in which the observation of coronal plasma will take place close to the Sun. Zr/Si films show high thermal stability and may be used as blocking filters in the wavelength range of 12.5-17 nm. Al/Si films show lower thermal stability: a significant decrease in the film's transmission in the EUV spectral range and an increase in the visible spectrum have been observed. We suppose that the low thermal stability of Al/Si films restricts their application in the Intergelioprobe project. Thus, there is a lack of filters for the wavelength range of λ>17 nm. Be/Si and Cr/Si filters have been proposed for the wavelength range near 30.4 nm. Although these filters have lower transparency than Al/Si, they are superior in thermal stability. Multilayer Sc/Al filters with relatively high transmission at a wavelength of 58.4 nm (HeI line) and simultaneously sufficient rejection in the wavelength range near 30.4 nm (HeII line) have been fabricated. They are planned to be used in the project KORTES, whose telescopes will have an EUV channel at 58.4 nm.

Reflective Schmidt-Cassegrain system for large-aperture telescopes.

A reflective modification of the Schmidt-Cassegrain system was built and tested. Ultraviolet (UV) and soft x-ray applications are discussed. The system consists of a planoid mirror with an aspheric profile and prime concave and secondary convex spherical mirrors. Spherical aberration in a wide field of view and astigmatism are compensated by the aspheric profile of the planoid. The main parameters of the scheme are as follows: an entrance aperture of 180 mm, a focal ratio F/3.2, an angular resolution better than 3'' (corresponding to a pixel size of a back-side illuminated CCD), a field of view of ±1.5° (2ω=3°) and a flat image field with a diameter of 30.4 mm. Due to the absence of chromatic aberrations and wide field of view, the scheme is of considerable interest for hyperspectral instruments. In particular, the operating range of the instruments can be expanded into vacuum UV and UV regions.

Advanced materials for multilayer mirrors for extreme ultraviolet solar astronomy.

We provide an analysis of contemporary multilayer optics for extreme ultraviolet (EUV) solar astronomy in the wavelength ranges: λ=12.9-13.3 nm, λ=17-21 nm, λ=28-33 nm, and λ=58.4 nm. We found new material pairs, which will make new spaceborne experiments possible due to the high reflection efficiencies, spectral resolution, and long-term stabilities of the proposed multilayer coatings. In the spectral range λ=13 nm, Mo/Be multilayer mirrors were shown to demonstrate a better ratio of reflection efficiency and spectral resolution compared with the commonly used Mo/Si. In the spectral range λ=17-21 nm, a new multilayer structure Al/Si was proposed, which had higher spectral resolution along with comparable reflection efficiency compared with the commonly used Al/Zr multilayer structures. In the spectral range λ=30 nm, the Si/B4C/Mg/Cr multilayer structure turned out to best obey reflection efficiency and long-term stability. The B4C and Cr layers prevented mutual diffusion of the Si and Mg layers. For the spectral range λ=58 nm, a new multilayer Mo/Mg-based structure was developed; its reflection efficiency and long-term stability have been analyzed. We also investigated intrinsic stresses inherent for most of the multilayer structures and proposed possibilities for stress elimination.

Ion-beam polishing of fused silica substrates for imaging soft x-ray and extreme ultraviolet optics.

We have studied the surface treatment of polished fused silica by neutralized Ar ions with energy of 500-1500 eV and incidence angles of 0-90°. We found the following regularities: for samples that passed the standard procedure of deep polishing (initial effective roughness σ(eff)∼0.5 nm), the effective roughness decreases to the ultrasmooth level (i.e., σ(eff)∼0.25 nm in the range of spatial frequencies q∈[4.9×10(-2)-63] µm(-1)). The effect begins to be noticeable at the material removal of 150 nm and reaches saturation at depths of removal greater than 1 µm. For supersmooth samples (σ(eff)<0.3 nm), the effective roughness keeps the initial level at material removal down to tens of micrometers. The optimal ion energy range is 800-1300 eV (maximum smoothing effect); at higher energy some surface roughness degradation is observed. All the smoothing effects are observed at the incidence angle range θ(in)=0-35°. Increasing the ion energy above 1300 eV increases the etching rate by up to 4 µm per hour (J(ion)=0.8 mA/cm2), which allows for deep aspherization of sized substrates. The technique allows for manufacturing the optical elements for extreme ultraviolet and soft x-ray wavelength ranges with a numerical aperture of up to 0.6.

Problems in the application of a null lens for precise measurements of aspheric mirrors.

Problems in the application of a null lens for surface shape measurements of aspherical mirrors are discussed using the example of manufacturing an aspherical concave mirror for the beyond extreme ultraviolet nanolithographer. A method for allowing measurement of the surface shape of a sample under study and the aberration of a null lens simultaneously, and for evaluating measurement accuracy, is described. Using this method, we made a mirror with an aspheric surface of the 6th order (i.e., the maximum deviation from the best-fit sphere is 6.6 µm) with the parameters of the deviations from the designed surface PV=5.3 nm and RMS=0.8 nm. An approximation of the surface shape was carried out using Zernike polynomials {Z(n)(m)(r,φ),m+n≤36}. The physical limitations of this technique are analyzed. It is shown that for aspheric measurements to an Angstrom accuracy, one needs to have a null lens with errors of less than 1 nm. For accurate measurements, it is necessary to establish compliance with the coordinates on the sample and on the interferogram.

Application of point diffraction interferometry for measuring angular displacement to a sensitivity of 0.01 arcsec.

The use of point diffraction interferometry is reported for measuring minutes, on the order of 0.01 arcsec angular movements. The algorithm for determining the angular displacement by the dynamics of the interference pattern is described. We also demonstrate results for applying this method to the study of the linearity and hysteresis of the angular shift of the platform, controlled by piezo actuators, which are designed for angular adjustment of the mirror of a solar extreme-ultraviolet telescope.

Sub-micrometer resolution proximity X-ray microscope with digital image registration.

A compact laboratory proximity soft X-ray microscope providing submicrometer spatial resolution and digital image registration is described. The microscope consists of a laser-plasma soft X-ray radiation source, a Schwarzschild objective to illuminate the test sample, and a two-coordinate detector for image registration. Radiation, which passes through the sample under study, generates an absorption image on the front surface of the detector. Optical ceramic YAG:Ce was used to convert the X-rays into visible light. An image was transferred from the scintillator to a charge-coupled device camera with a Mitutoyo Plan Apo series lens. The detector's design allows the use of lenses with numerical apertures of NA = 0.14, 0.28, and 0.55 without changing the dimensions and arrangement of the elements of the device. This design allows one to change the magnification, spatial resolution, and field of view of the X-ray microscope. A spatial resolution better than 0.7 µm and an energy conversion efficiency of the X-ray radiation with a wavelength of 13.5 nm into visible light collected by the detector of 7.2% were achieved with the largest aperture lens.