Living arrangements and housing affordability issues of young adults in Canada: Differences by nativity status.

Housing prices in Canada have increased dramatically, giving rise to a housing affordability crisis. Young adults have been disproportionately affected by this crisis. To cope, many young adults have had to alter their living arrangements, contributing to the diversification of their living arrangements. Young adults' diverse living arrangements are the product of growing inequalities in young adults' economic prospects and access to family support. Extant work has yet to document how young adults' risk of having unaffordable housing varies according to their living arrangements. Our comparison of young adults' risk of having unaffordable housing according to their living arrangements reveals that co-residence with parents, relatives, or roommates reduces young adults' risk of having unaffordable housing. This protective effect is smaller for the foreign-born than the Canadian-born. The National Housing Strategy should allocate more resources to increase the supply of affordable housing earmarked for young adults, particularly the foreign-born who live alone or with children.

Les prix du logement au Canada ont augmenté de façon spectaculaire, donnant lieu à une crise de l'abordabilité. Les jeunes adultes ont été touchés de manière disproportionnée par cette crise. Pour faire face à la situation, de nombreux jeunes adultes ont dû modifier leurs conditions de vie, contribuant ainsi à la diversification de leurs conditions de vie. Les diverses conditions de vie des jeunes adultes sont le produit d'inégalités croissantes dans les perspectives économiques des jeunes adultes et dans l'accès à l'aide familiale. Les recherches existantes n'ont pas encore documenté la manière dont le risque pour les jeunes adultes d'avoir un logement inabordable varie en fonction de leurs conditions de vie. Notre comparaison du risque pour les jeunes adultes de se trouver dans un logement inabordable en fonction de leurs conditions de vie révèle que la cohabitation avec leurs parents, des proches ou des colocataires réduit le risque pour les jeunes adultes de se trouver dans un logement inabordable. Cet effet protecteur est plus faible pour les personnes nées à l'étranger que pour les personnes nées au Canada. La Stratégie nationale sur le logement devrait allouer davantage de ressources pour augmenter l'offre de logements abordables destinés aux jeunes adultes, en particulier aux personnes nées à l'étranger qui vivent seules ou avec des enfants.

Racial/Ethnic Variation in the Relationship Between Educational Assortative Mating and Wives' Income Trajectories.

Prior work has examined the relationship between educational assortative mating and wives' labor market participation but has not assessed how this relationship varies by race/ethnicity. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, we estimate group-based developmental trajectories to investigate whether the association between educational assortative mating and wives' income trajectories varies by race/ethnicity. The presence, prevalence, and shapes of prototypical long-term income trajectories vary markedly across racial/ethnic groups. Whites are more likely than Blacks and Hispanics to follow income trajectories consistent with a traditional gender division of labor. The association between educational assortative mating is also stronger for Whites than for Blacks and Hispanics. White wives in educationally hypogamous unions make the greatest contribution to the couple's total income, followed by those in homogamous and hypergamous unions. Black and Hispanic wives in hypogamous unions are less likely than their peers in other unions to be secondary earners. These findings underscore the need for studies of the consequences of educational assortative mating to pay closer attention to heterogeneity across and within racial/ethnic groups.

Ageism toward older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic: Intergenerational conflict and support.

A cross-national representative survey in Canada and the U.S. examined ageism toward older individuals during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic, including ageist consumption stereotypes and perceptions of older people's competence and warmth. We also investigated predictors of ageism, including economic and health threat, social dominance orientation, individualism and collectivism, social distancing beliefs, and demographics. In both countries, younger adults were more likely to hold ageist consumption stereotypes, demonstrating intergenerational conflict about the resources being used by older people. Similarly, young adults provided older people with the lowest competence and warmth scores, though adults of all ages rated older individuals as more warm than competent. Particularly among younger individuals, beliefs about group-based dominance hierarchies, the importance of competition, and the costs of social distancing predicted greater endorsement, whereas beliefs about interdependence and the importance of sacrificing for the collective good predicted lower endorsement of ageist consumption stereotypes. Support for group-based inequality predicted lower perceived competence and warmth of older individuals, whereas beliefs about interdependence and the importance of sacrificing for the collective good predicted higher perceived competence and warmth of older individuals. Implications for policies and practices to reduce intergenerational conflict and ageist perceptions of older individuals are discussed.

Socioeconomic Variation in the Relationship Between Neighbourhoods' Built Environments and the Spread of COVID-19 in Toronto, Canada.

The novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic underscores the importance of place of residence as a determinant of health. Prior work has primarily examined the relationship between neighbourhoods' sociodemographic traits and COVID-19 infection rates. Using data from the City of Toronto, Canada, we assess how the built environments of neighbourhoods, in conjunction with their sociodemographic profiles, shape the pattern of spread of COVID-19 in low-, middle-, and high-income neighbourhoods. Our results show that COVID-19 spread faster in neighbourhoods with a higher share of overcrowded households, large commercial areas, and poor walkability. The extent to which neighbourhood walkability is associated with a slower increase in COVID-19 infections varied by neighbourhood income level, with a stronger negative association in low-income neighbourhoods. Net of the share of overcrowded households, population density is associated with a faster increase in COVID-19 infections in low-income neighbourhoods, but slower increase in high-income neighbourhoods. More green space is associated with a slower increase in COVID-19 infections in low-income, but not higher-income, neighbourhoods. Overall, our findings suggest that post-pandemic urban planning efforts cannot adopt a one-size-fits-all policy when reconstructing neighbourhoods in ways that promote health and reduce their vulnerability to infectious diseases. Instead, they should tailor the rebuilding process in ways that address the diverse needs of residents in low-, middle-, and high-income neighbourhoods.

Parmi les déterminants de la santé, la récente pandémie de coronavirus (COVID-19) a souligné l'importance du lieu de résidence. Les travaux de recherche antérieurs se sont essentiellement attachés à étudier le lien entre les caractéristiques démographiques des quartiers et les taux d'infection à la COVID-19. En nous appuyant sur les données de la ville de Toronto au Canada, nous avons évalué la façon dont l'environnement bâti des quartiers, de pair avec leurs profils sociodémographiques, pouvait façonner les schémas de propagation de la COVID-19 dans les secteurs à faibles revenus, à revenus moyens et à revenus élevés. Nos résultats montrent que la COVID-19 se propage plus rapidement dans les quartiers à forte proportion de logements surpeuplés, où les grandes zones commerciales sont plus nombreuses et où les potentiels piétonniers sont moindres. Le degré de corrélation entre le potentiel piétonnier et la progression plus lente des cas de contamination à la COVID-19 dépend du niveau de revenu d'un quartier, et cette corrélation s'avère plus fortement négative dès lors que les revenus y sont faibles. Déduction faite de la proportion de logements surpeuplés, la densité de population est corrélée à une progression plus forte des cas de contamination à la COVID-19 dans les secteurs à faibles revenus, et à une propagation plus lente au sein des quartiers à revenus élevés. Dans les secteurs à faibles revenus, la présence d'espaces verts en plus grand nombre est corrélée à une progression plus lente des cas de contamination à la COVID-19, ce qui n'est pas le cas dans les quartiers à revenus élevés. Dans l'ensemble, nos résultats montrent que pour reconstruire les quartiers de manière à promouvoir la santé et réduire la vulnérabilité aux maladies infectieuses, les efforts de planification urbaine postpandémie ne pourront adopter une approche uniformisée. Au contraire, les processus de reconstruction devront être adaptés pour répondre aux différents besoins des résidents de tous les quartiers, quels que soient leurs niveaux de revenus.

Studying the social determinants of COVID-19 in a data vacuum.

Race-based and other demographic information on COVID-19 patients is not being collected consistently across provinces in Canada. Therefore, whether the burden of COVID-19 is falling disproportionately on the shoulders of particular demographic groups is relatively unknown. In this article, we first provide an overview of the available geographic and demographic data related to COVID-19. We then make creative use of these existing data to fill the vacuum and identify key demographic risk factors for COVID-19 across Canada's health regions. Drawing on COVID-19 counts and tabular census data, we examine the association between communities' demographic composition and the number of COVID-19 infections. COVID-19 infections are higher in communities with larger shares of Black and low-income residents. Our approach offers a way for researchers and policymakers to use existing data to identify communities nationwide that are vulnerable to the pandemic in the absence of more detailed demographic and more granular geographic data.

Les renseignements fondés sur la race et d'autres données démographiques sur les patients atteints du COVID-19 ne sont pas recueillis de manière uniforme dans toutes les provinces du Canada. Par conséquent, si le fardeau du COVID-19 tombe de manière disproportionnée sur les épaules de groupes démographiques particuliers est relativement inconnu. Dans cet article, nous fournissons d'abord un aperçu des données géographiques et démographiques disponibles liées au COVID-19. Nous utilisons ensuite de manière créative ces données existantes pour combler le vide et identifier les principaux facteurs de risque démographiques du COVID-19 dans les régions sociosanitaires du Canada. En nous basant sur les dénombrements de COVID-19 et les données tabulaires du recensement, nous examinons l'association entre la composition démographique des communautés et le nombre d'infections au COVID-19. Les infections au COVID-19 sont plus élevées dans les communautés avec une plus grande proportion de résidents Noirs et à faible revenu. Notre approche offre aux chercheurs et aux décideurs un moyen d'utiliser les données existantes pour identifier les communautés à l'échelle nationale qui sont vulnérables à la pandémie en l'absence de données démographiques plus détaillées et géographiques plus granulaires.

Mental health and economic concerns from March to May during the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada: Insights from an analysis of repeated cross-sectional surveys.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic impacted the psychological wellbeing of populations worldwide. In this study, we assess changes in mental health during the early months of the pandemic in Canada and examine its relationship with another prominent problem during this time, economic concerns. METHODS: Analyses were based on two cycles of the nationally representative repeated cross-sectional Canadian Perspectives Survey Series (N=4627 in March and 4600 in May). We described the changes in mental health and economic concerns between March and May, and assessed the relationship between the two characteristics. RESULTS: Mental health declined significantly during the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic: the proportion of Canadian adults who reported only good/fair/poor mental health grew from 46% to 52% from March to May. Economic concerns including food insecurity were an important correlate of 'bad' mental health, as was younger age, female gender, and Canada-born status. Contrary to expectations, however, economic concerns lessened during this time frame. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that policies to mitigate economic stress, such as Canada's Emergency Response Benefit, may have eased mental health deterioration in early pandemic months through a reduction in financial hardship. Interventions to increase the economic security of the population will have far-reaching consequences in terms of improved mental health, and should be continued throughout the pandemic.

The Social Significance of Interracial Cohabitation: Inferences Based on Fertility Behavior.

Interracial couples cohabit at higher rates than same-race couples, which is attributed to lower barriers to interracial cohabitation relative to intermarriage. This begs the question of whether the significance of cohabitation differs between interracial and same-race couples. Using data from the 2006-2017 National Survey of Family Growth, we assessed the meaning of interracial cohabitation by comparing the pregnancy risk, pregnancy intentions, and union transitions following a pregnancy among women in interracial and same-race cohabitations. The pregnancy and union transition behaviors of women in White-Black cohabitations resembled those of Black women in same-race cohabitations, suggesting that White-Black cohabitation serves as a substitute to marriage and reflecting barriers to the formation of White-Black intermarriages. The behaviors of women in White-Hispanic cohabitations fell between those of their same-race counterparts or resembled those of White women in same-race cohabitations. These findings suggest that White-Hispanic cohabitations take on a meaning between trial marriage and substitute to marriage and support views that Hispanics with White partners are a more assimilated group than Hispanics in same-race unions. Results for pregnancy intentions deviated from these patterns. Women in White-Black cohabitations were less likely than Black women in same-race cohabitations to have an unintended pregnancy, suggesting that White-Black cohabitations are considered marriage-like unions involving children. Women in White-Hispanic cohabitations were more likely than White and Hispanic women in same-race cohabitations to have an unintended pregnancy, reflecting possible concerns about social discrimination. These findings indicate heterogeneity in the significance of interracial cohabitation and continuing obstacles to interracial unions.

Decline in Marriage Associated with the COVID-19 Pandemic in the United States.

In the social upheaval arising from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, we do not yet know how union formation, particularly marriage, has been affected. Using administration records-marriage certificates and applications-gathered from settings representing a variety of COVID-19 experiences in the United States, the authors compare counts of recorded marriages in 2020 against those from the same period in 2019. There is a dramatic decrease in year-to-date cumulative marriages in 2020 compared with 2019 in each case. Similar patterns are observed for the Seattle metropolitan area when analyzing the cumulative number of marriage applications, a leading indicator of marriages in the near future. Year-to-date declines in marriage are unlikely to be due solely to closure of government agencies that administer marriage certification or reporting delays. Together, these findings suggest that marriage has declined during the COVID-19 outbreak and may continue to do so, at least in the short term.

Low birth weight and childhood health: the role of maternal education.

PURPOSE: Low birth weight (LBW) is associated with myriad health and developmental problems in childhood and later in life. Less well-documented is the variation in the relationship between LBW status and subsequent child health by socioeconomic status-such as education levels and income. This article examines whether differences exist in the relationship between LBW and subsequent child health by maternal education. METHODS: We used data from the 1998-2017 National Health Interview Survey to estimate multivariate logistic regression models to determine whether the association between LBW and subsequent child health as measured by general health status, developmental disability, and asthma diagnosis differed by maternal education, net of differences in children's sociodemographic factors, family background, and medical access. RESULTS: The negative association between LBW and subsequent health was typically weaker for children of mothers with less than high school education than it was for children of mothers with higher levels of education. CONCLUSIONS: The findings on the enduring impact of LBW status on child health for all children, especially those born to mothers with higher levels of education, suggest that all children born LBW should be provided appropriate medical and support services to reduce the lifelong repercussions of poor health at birth.

The relationship between low birthweight and childhood health: disparities by race, ethnicity, and national origin.

PURPOSE: Racial/ethnic disparities in rates of low birthweight (LBW) are well established, as are racial/ethnic differences in health outcomes over the life course. Yet, there is little empirical work examining whether the consequences of LBW for subsequent child health vary by race, ethnicity, and national origin. METHODS: Using data from the 1998-2016 National Health Interview Survey, we examined whether racial, ethnic, and national differences existed in the association between LBW and subsequent health outcomes, namely being diagnosed with a developmental disability, asthma diagnosis, and poorer general health. RESULTS: Children born with LBW consistently had poorer health relative to children born with normal birthweight. There was no systematic evidence that the linkages between LBW and subsequent health were weaker for one racial/ethnic/national origin group relative to others. CONCLUSIONS: LBW was associated with subsequent poorer health. There was no systematic evidence that the link between LBW and subsequent child health were weaker for one racial/ethnic/national origin group relative to others. Together, these findings highlight the importance of reducing race/ethnic disparities in rates of LBW as a way of eradicating inequalities in childhood health.

Marriage-Market Constraints and Mate-Selection Behavior: Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Differences in Intermarriage.

Despite theoretical consensus that marriage markets constrain mate selection behavior, few studies directly evaluate how local marriage market conditions influence intermarriage patterns. Using data from the American Community Survey, we examine what aspects of marriage markets influence mate selection; assess whether the associations between marriage market conditions and intermarriage are uniform by gender and across pan-ethnic groups; and investigate the extent to which marriage market conditions account for group differences in intermarriage patterns. Relative group size is the most salient and consistent determinant of intermarriage patterns across pan-ethnic groups and by gender. Marriage market constraints typically explain a larger share of pan-ethnic differences in intermarriage rates than individual traits, suggesting that scarcity of co-ethnic partners is a key reason behind decisions to intermarry. When faced with market constraints, men are more willing or more successful than women in crossing racial and ethnic boundaries in marriage.

Boundary crossing in first marriage and remarriage.

Owing to secular increases in divorce rates, remarriage has become a prevalent feature of American family life; yet, research about mate selection behavior in higher order marriages remains limited. Using log-linear methods to recent data from the 2008-2014 American Community Survey, we compare racial and ethnic sorting behavior in first and subsequent marriages. The two most frequently crossed boundaries - those involving White-Asian and White-Hispanic couples - are more permeable in remarriages than in first marriages. Boundaries that are crossed with less frequency - those between minority groups and the White-Black boundary-are less permeable in remarriages than in first marriages. Collectively, these findings suggest that racial and ethnic sorting processes in remarriage may reify existing social distances between pan-ethnic groups. Racial and ethnic variations in how the relative permeability of boundary changes between first and higher-order marriages underscore the importance of considering a broad array of interracial pairings when assessing the ways in which changes in family structure and marital sorting behavior promote integration.

Asian children's verbal development: A comparison of the United States and Australia.

Using longitudinal cohort studies from Australia and the United States, we assess the pervasiveness of the Asian academic advantage by documenting White-Asian differences in verbal development from early to middle childhood. In the United States, Asian children begin school with higher verbal scores than Whites, but their advantage erodes over time. The initial verbal advantage of Asian American children is partly due to their parent's socioeconomic advantage and would have been larger had it not been for their mother's English deficiency. In Australia, Asian children have lower verbal scores than Whites at age 4, but their scores grow a faster rate and converge towards those of Whites by age 8. The initial verbal disadvantage of Asian Australian children is partly due to their mother's English deficiency and would have been larger had it not been for their Asian parent's educational advantage. Asian Australian children's verbal scores grow at a faster pace, in part, because of their parent's educational advantage.

The mixed effects of migration: community-level migration and birthweight in Mexico.

Research on the relationship between migration and infant health in Mexico finds that migration has mixed impacts on the risk of low birthweight (LBW). Whereas the departure and absence of household and community members are harmful, remittances are beneficial. We extend this work by considering a different measure of infant health in addition to LBW: macrosomia (i.e., heavy birthweight), which is associated with infant, child, and maternal morbidities but has a different social risk profile from LBW. We link the 2008 and 2009 Mexican birth certificates with community data from the 2000 Mexican census to analyze the association between various dimensions of community-level migration (i.e., rates of out-migration, receipt of remittances, and return migration) and the risk of LBW and macrosomia. We examine this association using two sets of models which differ in the extent to which they account for endogeneity. We find that the health impacts of migration differ depending not only on the dimension of migration, but also on the measure of health, and that they are robust to potential sources of endogeneity. Whereas community remittances and return migration are associated with lower risk of LBW, they are associated with increased risk of macrosomia. By contrast, out-migration is associated with increased risk of LBW and lower risk of macrosomia. Our analysis of endogeneity suggests that bias resulting from unmeasured differences between communities with different levels of migration may result in an underestimate of the impacts of community migration on birthweight.

Widowhood, age heterogamy, and health: the role of selection, marital quality, and health behaviors.

OBJECTIVE: Although the impact of widowhood on the surviving spouse's health has been widely documented, there is little empirical research examining whether certain spousal choice decisions and marital sorting patterns predispose individuals to be more vulnerable to the adverse consequences of widowhood for health. DESIGN AND METHOD: We use data from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study and employ ordinary least squares models to (a) document variations in mental and physical health between married and widowed persons, (b) determine whether widowed persons in age heterogamous unions are especially vulnerable to the adverse consequences of widowhood, and (c) investigate to what extent differential selection, marital quality, and health practices account for health disparities by marital status and the spousal age gap. RESULTS: Widowed persons, especially those in age heterogamous unions, have worse mental health than married persons, but they do not seem to be more disadvantaged in terms of physical health. Differential selection, marital quality, and health behaviors partly account for some of the health disparities by marital status and spousal age gap. DISCUSSION: Our findings suggest that marrying a spouse who is very dissimilar in age may enhance one's vulnerability to the adverse consequences of widowhood for health.

Immigration and Status Exchange in Australia and the United States.

This paper evaluates the status exchange hypothesis for Australia and the United States, two Anglophone nations with long immigration traditions whose admission regimes place different emphases on skills. Using log-linear methods, we demonstrate that foreign-born spouses trade educational credentials via marriage with natives in both Australian and U.S. marriage markets and, moreover, that nativity is a more salient marriage barrier for men than for women. With some exceptions, immigrant spouses in mixed nativity couples are better educated than native spouses in same nativity couples, but status exchange is more prevalent among the less-educated spouses in both countries. Support for the status exchange hypothesis is somewhat weaker in Australia partly because of lower average levels of education compared with the United States and partly because of less sharply defined educational hierarchy at the postsecondary level.

International migration and educational assortative mating in Mexico and the United States.

This paper examines the relationship between migration and marriage by describing how the distributions of marital statuses and assortative mating patterns vary by individual and community experiences of migration. In Mexico, migrants and those living in areas with high levels of out-migration are more likely to be in heterogamous unions. This is because migration increases the relative attractiveness of single return migrants while disproportionately reducing the number of marriageable men in local marriage markets. In the United States, the odds of homogamy are lower for migrants compared with nonmigrants; however, they do not vary depending on the volume of migration in communities. Migrants are more likely than nonmigrants to "marry up" educationally because the relatively small size of this group compels them to expand their pool of potential spouses to include nonmigrants, who tend to be better educated than they are. Among migrants, the odds of marrying outside of one's education group increase the most among the least educated. In Mexican communities with high rates of out-migration, the odds of marrying outside of one's education group are highest among those with the highest level of education. These findings suggest that migration disrupts preferences and opportunities for homogamy by changing social arrangements and normative climates.

A Longitudinal Analysis of Contextual Exposure to Peers with College Educated Parents and Students' College Enrollment.

Students with college educated parents are more likely to attain higher levels of education than students of parents with lower levels of education. Past research has explained this favorable outcome as the result of advantageous placement and greater availability of educational resources. Using data from Add Health and AHAA, we find evidence that exposure to students of college educated parents at the school level and within courses increase the likelihood of four year college enrollment even after controlling for family background, achievement, and placement. We also found that exposure to students of college educated parents has especially strong positive effects on college enrollment for students whose own parents do not have a college degree. These findings suggest that greater exposure to students of highly educated parents at the school level and within courses partially explains the favorable educational attainment of students with college educated parents.