In Vitro Metabolism and Transport Characteristics of Zastaprazan.

Zastaprazan (JP-1366), a novel potassium-competitive acid blocker, is a new drug for the treatment of erosive esophagitis. JP-1366 is highly metabolized in human, mouse, and dog hepatocytes but moderately metabolized in rat and monkey hepatocytes when estimated from the metabolic stability of this compound in hepatocyte suspension and when 18 phase I metabolites and 5 phase II metabolites [i.e., N-dearylation (M6), hydroxylation (M1, M19, M21), dihydroxylation (M7, M8, M14, M22), trihydroxylation (M13, M18), hydroxylation and reduction (M20), dihydroxylation and reduction (M9, M16), hydrolysis (M23), hydroxylation and glucuronidation (M11, M15), hydroxylation and sulfation (M17), dihydroxylation and sulfation (M10, M12), N-dearylation and hydroxylation (M3, M4), N-dearylation and dihydroxylation (M5), and N-dearylation and trihydroxylation (M2)] were identified from JP-1366 incubation with the hepatocytes from humans, mice, rats, dogs, and monkeys. Based on the cytochrome P450 (CYP) screening test and immune-inhibition analysis with CYP antibodies, CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 played major roles in the metabolism of JP-1366 to M1, M3, M4, M6, M8, M9, M13, M14, M16, M18, M19, M21, and M22. CYP1A2, 2C8, 2C9, 2C19, and 2D6 played minor roles in the metabolism of JP-1366. UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 2B7 and UGT2B17 were responsible for the glucuronidation of M1 to M15. However, JP-1366 and active metabolite M1 were not substrates for drug transporters such as organic cation transporter (OCT) 1/2, organic anion transporter (OAT) 1/3, organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP)1B1/1B3, multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE)1/2K, P-glycoprotein (P-gp), and breast cancer-resistant protein (BCRP). Only M1 showed substrate specificity for P-gp. The findings indicated that drug-metabolizing enzymes, particularly CYP3A4/3A5, may have a significant role in determining the pharmacokinetics of zastaprazan while drug transporters may only have a small impact on the absorption, distribution, and excretion of this compound.

Carboxymethyl cellulose-based rotigotine nanocrystals-loaded hydrogel for increased transdermal delivery with alleviated skin irritation.

Transdermal rotigotine (RTG) therapy is prescribed to manage Parkinson's disease (Neupro® patch). However, its use is suffered from application site reactions. Herein, drug nanocrystalline suspension (NS)-loaded hydrogel (NS-HG) employing polysaccharides simultaneously as suspending agent and hydrogel matrix was constructed for transdermal delivery, with alleviated skin irritation. RTG-loaded NS-HG was prepared using a bead-milling technique, employing sodium carboxylmethyl cellulose (Na.CMC) as nano-suspending agent (molecular weight 90,000 g/mol) and hydrogel matrix (700,000 g/mol), respectively. NS-HG was embodied as follows: drug loading: ≤100 mg/mL; shape: rectangular crystalline; crystal size: <286.7 nm; zeta potential: -61 mV; viscosity: <2.16 Pa·s; and dissolution rate: >90 % within 15 min. Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis revealed that the anionic polymers bind to RTG nanocrystals via charge interaction, affording uniform dispersion in the matrix. Rodent transdermal absorption of RTG from NS-HG was comparable to that from microemulsions, and proportional to drug loading. Moreover, NS-HG was skin-friendly; erythema and epidermal swelling were absent after repeated application. Further, NS-HG was chemically stable; >95 % of the drug was preserved up to 4 weeks under long term (25 °C/RH60%), accelerated (40 °C/RH75%), and stress (50 °C) storage conditions. Therefore, this novel cellulose derivative-based nanoformulation presents a promising approach for effective transdermal RTG delivery with improved tolerability.

Effect of dietary Achyranthes japonica extract on growth performance of growing pigs and absorption rate of quercetin in blood.

This study was done to investigate the effects of the incorporation of Achyranthes japonica extracts (AJE) in diet on the production parameters of growing pigs. Exp 1: Total, 105 crossbred pigs (average body weight: 24.47 ± 2.46 kg) were used in a 6-week feeding trial. Pigs (seven replicates, five pigs per pen) were allotted randomly to three treatments. Dietary treatments: CON (basal diet); basal diet with 0.025% AJE, and basal diet + 0.050% AJE). Growth performance, nutrient digestibility, fecal microbial count, and fecal noxious gas were assessed in this study. Average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and gain to feed ratio (G:F) were not affected by the addition of up to 0.05% AJE. In the case of apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD), dry matter (DM), nitrogen (N), and digestible energy (DE) were not changed in 3rd and 6th weeks of the feeding trial through the addition of AJE up to 0.05% in the growing pig diet. In microbial count, Lactobacillus and Escherichia coli count at 3rd and 6th week was similar in all the treatment diets. The inclusion of AJE at levels up to 0.05% in growing pig diet had no effect on the production of NH3, H2S, acetic acid, and CO2 in the feces. After ending the Exp 1, a total of nine pigs were divided into three treatment groups. Treatment diets were included, TRT1, basal diet + powder quercetin 30 g; TRT2, basal diet + powder quercetin 150 g; TRT3, basal diet + powder quercetin 300g. Rate of absorption in blood was increased with the higher dose of quercetin. The results suggested incorporation of AJE up to 0.05% has no significant effect on ADG, ADFI, and G:F, as well as DM, N, and DE digestibility, fecal microbial count, and fecal noxious gas emission in growing pigs, even though no negative effect was found.

Recent Advances in Doxorubicin Formulation to Enhance Pharmacokinetics and Tumor Targeting.

Doxorubicin (DOX), a widely used drug in cancer chemotherapy, induces cell death via multiple intracellular interactions, generating reactive oxygen species and DNA-adducted configurations that induce apoptosis, topoisomerase II inhibition, and histone eviction. Despite its wide therapeutic efficacy in solid tumors, DOX often induces drug resistance and cardiotoxicity. It shows limited intestinal absorption because of low paracellular permeability and P-glycoprotein (P-gp)-mediated efflux. We reviewed various parenteral DOX formulations, such as liposomes, polymeric micelles, polymeric nanoparticles, and polymer-drug conjugates, under clinical use or trials to increase its therapeutic efficacy. To improve the bioavailability of DOX in intravenous and oral cancer treatment, studies have proposed a pH- or redox-sensitive and receptor-targeted system for overcoming DOX resistance and increasing therapeutic efficacy without causing DOX-induced toxicity. Multifunctional formulations of DOX with mucoadhesiveness and increased intestinal permeability through tight-junction modulation and P-gp inhibition have also been used as orally bioavailable DOX in the preclinical stage. The increasing trends of developing oral formulations from intravenous formulations, the application of mucoadhesive technology, permeation-enhancing technology, and pharmacokinetic modulation with functional excipients might facilitate the further development of oral DOX.

Immunotherapy targeting plasma ASM is protective in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

Acid sphingomyelinase (ASM) has been implicated in neurodegenerative disease pathology, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the specific role of plasma ASM in promoting these pathologies is poorly understood. Herein, we explore plasma ASM as a circulating factor that accelerates neuropathological features in AD by exposing young APP/PS1 mice to the blood of mice overexpressing ASM, through parabiotic surgery. Elevated plasma ASM was found to enhance several neuropathological features in the young APP/PS1 mice by mediating the differentiation of blood-derived, pathogenic Th17 cells. Antibody-based immunotherapy targeting plasma ASM showed efficient inhibition of ASM activity in the blood of APP/PS1 mice and, interestingly, led to prophylactic effects on neuropathological features by suppressing pathogenic Th17 cells. Our data reveals insights into the potential pathogenic mechanisms underlying AD and highlights ASM-targeting immunotherapy as a potential strategy for further investigation.

Concomitant Administration of Red Ginseng Extract with Lactic Acid Bacteria Increases the Plasma Concentration of Deglycosylated Ginsenosides in Healthy Human Subjects.

With the increased frequency of red ginseng extract (RGE) and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) co-administration, we aimed to investigate the interactions between RGE and LAB with regard to in vitro and in vivo deglycosylation metabolism and the pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides. As a proof-of-concept study, five healthy humans were administered RGE (104.1 mg of total ginsenosides/day) with or without co-administration of LAB (2 g, 1 billion CFU/day) for 2 weeks, and the plasma concentrations of ginsenosides in human plasma were monitored. The plasma exposure to compound K (CK), ginsenoside Rh2 (GRh2), protopanaxadiol (PPD), and protopanaxatriol (PPT) in the concomitant administration RGE and LAB groups increased by 2.7-, 2.1-, 1.6-, and 3.5-fold, respectively, compared to those in the RGE administration group, without a significant change in Tmax. The plasma concentrations of GRb1, GRb2, and GRc remained unchanged, whereas the AUC values of GRd and GRg3 significantly decreased in the concomitant administration RGE and LAB groups. To understand the underlying mechanism, the in vitro metabolic activity of ginsenosides was measured during the fermentation of RGE or individual ginsenosides in the presence of LAB for 1 week. Consistent with the in vivo results, co-incubation with RGE and LAB significantly increased the formation rate of GRh2, CK, PPD, and PPT. These results may be attributed to the facilitated deglycosylation of GRd and GRg3 and the increased production of GRh2, CK, PPD, and PPT by the co-administration of LAB and RGE. In conclusion, LAB supplementation increased the plasma concentrations of deglycosylated ginsenosides, such as GRh2, CK, PPD, and PPT, through facilitated deglycosylation metabolism of ginsenosides in the intestine.

Simultaneous Analysis of a Combination of Anti-Hypertensive Drugs, Fimasartan, Amlodipine, and Hydrochlorothiazide, in Rats Using LC-MS/MS and Subsequent Application to Pharmacokinetic Drug Interaction with Red Ginseng Extract.

Fimasartan, amlodipine, and hydrochlorothiazide are commonly used in combination therapies as antihypertensive drugs. This study aimed to develop and validate an analytical method for fimasartan, its active and major metabolite fimasartan-amide, amlodipine, and hydrochlorothiazide in rat plasma using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The standard calibration curves for fimasartan (1−500 ng/mL), its active and major metabolite fimasartan-amide (0.3−100 ng/mL), amlodipine (0.5−200 ng/mL), and hydrochlorothiazide (5−5000 ng/mL) were linear with R2 > 0.9964, and the inter- and intra-day accuracy and precision and stability were within the acceptable criteria. Using this validated analytical method, the pharmacokinetic interaction of these triple combination drugs between single administration and concomitant administration of the triple combination was investigated; the results did not reveal a significant difference in any of the pharmacokinetic parameters. Based on these results, we investigated the effects of red ginseng extract (RGE) on the pharmacokinetics of fimasartan, fimasartan-amide, amlodipine, and hydrochlorothiazide after oral administration of the combination in rats. No significant difference was observed in the pharmacokinetic parameters of fimasartan, fimasartan-amide, amlodipine, and hydrochlorothiazide, except for the Tmax values of amlodipine. The delayed Tmax value of amlodipine was attributed to its decreased intestinal permeability after repeated RGE treatments. In conclusion, using a combination of antihypertensive drugs and simultaneous analytical methods, we established efficient drug interaction and toxicokinetic studies using a small number of animals.

Enhanced bioavailability and hepatoprotective effect of silymarin by preparing silymarin-loaded solid dispersion formulation using freeze-drying method.

This study aimed to develop a solid dispersion formulation of silymarin (Silymarin-SD) using freeze-drying method to enhance its oral bioavailability (BA) by inhibiting the intestinal first-pass effect and increasing its solubility and permeability. Silymarin-SD formulation (i.e., silymarin:tween 80:hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) = 1:1:3 (w/w/w) significantly increased silymarin permeability in the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum by decreasing the efflux ratio of silymarin and by inhibiting silymarin-glucuronidation activity, in which tween 80 played a crucial role. As a result, orally administered Silymarin-SD formulation increased plasma silymarin concentrations and decreased silymarin-glucuronide in rats compared with silymarin alone and silymmarin:D-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (1:1, w/w) formulation. In addition to modulating intestinal first-pass effect, Silymarin-SD formulation showed a significantly higher cumulative dissolution for 120 min compared with that of silymarin from the physical mixture (PM) of the same composition as Silymarin-SD and silymarin alone; the relative BA of silymarin-SD increased to 215% and 589% compared with silymarin-PM and silymarin alone, respectively. This could be attributed to the amorphous status of the Silymarin-SD formulation without chemical interaction with excipients, such as tween 80 and HPC. Moreover, the hepatoprotective effect of Silymarin-SD in acetaminophen-induced acute hepatotoxicity, as estimated from the alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase values, was superior to that of silymarin. In conclusion, the increase in the dissolution rate and intestinal permeability of silymarin, and the inhibition of silymarin-glucuronidation by the Silymarin-SD formulation, prepared using tween 80 and HPC, increased its plasma concentration and resulted in a superior hepatoprotective effect compared to silymarin.

Pharmacokinetics and Tissue Distribution of Enavogliflozin in Mice and Rats.

This study investigated the pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of enavogliflozin, a novel sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor that is currently in phase three clinical trials. Enavogliflozin showed dose-proportional pharmacokinetics following intravenous and oral administration (doses of 0.3, 1, and 3 mg/kg) in both mice and rats. Oral bioavailability was 84.5-97.2% for mice and 56.3-62.1% for rats. Recovery of enavogliflozin as parent form from feces and urine was 39.3 ± 3.5% and 6.6 ± 0.7%, respectively, 72 h after its intravenous injection (1 mg/kg), suggesting higher biliary than urinary excretion in mice. Major biliary excretion was also suggested for rats, with 15.9 ± 5.9% in fecal recovery and 0.7 ± 0.2% in urinary recovery for 72 h, following intravenous injection (1 mg/kg). Enavogliflozin was highly distributed to the kidney, which was evidenced by the AUC ratio of kidney to plasma (i.e., 41.9 ± 7.7 in mice following its oral administration of 1 mg/kg) and showed slow elimination from the kidney (i.e., T1/2 of 29 h). It was also substantially distributed to the liver, stomach, and small and large intestine. In addition, the tissue distribution of enavogliflozin after single oral administration was not significantly altered by repeated oral administration for 7 days or 14 days. Overall, enavogliflozin displayed linear pharmacokinetics following intravenous and oral administration, significant kidney distribution, and favorable biliary excretion, but it was not accumulated in the plasma and major distributed tissues, following repeated oral administration for 2 weeks. These features may be beneficial for drug efficacy. However, species differences between rats and mice in metabolism and oral bioavailability should be considered as drug development continues.

Enhancing Dissolution and Oral Bioavailability of Ursodeoxycholic Acid with a Spray-Dried pH-Modified Extended Release Formulation.

Ursodeoxycholate (UDCA) has low oral bioavailability and pH-dependent solubility and permeability. Thus, we developed a pH-modified extended-release formulation of UDCA using Na2CO3 as the alkalizing agent and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) as the release-modifying agent. The optimized pH-modified controlled-release UDCA formulation, with the UDCA:HPMC:Na2CO3 ratio of 200:600:150 (w/w/w), was prepared using a spray-drying method. Then, the formulation's solubility, dissolution, and pharmacokinetic properties were characterized. In a pH-modified extended-release formulation of UDCA, the solubility of UDCA was increased to 8 mg/mL with a sustained dissolution for 12 h. Additionally, the spray-dried formulation exhibited amorphous states without molecular interaction among UDCA, Na2CO3, and HPMC. Moreover, the plasma UDCA concentration of the formulation maintained a higher UDCA concentration for up to 48 h than that of UDCA itself or the non-extended-release UDCA formulation. Consequently, the formulation significantly increased the AUC compared to UDCA or the non-extended-release UDCA formulation in rats. In conclusion, we have improved UDCA's solubility and dissolution profile by preparing a pH-modified extended-release formulation with the UDCA:HPMC:Na2CO3 ratio of 200:600:150 (w/w/w), which effectively increased the oral bioavailability of UDCA by 251% in rats.

Dietary inclusion of Achyranthes japonica extract to corn-soybean meal-wheat-based diet on the growth performance, nutrient digestibility, cecal microflora, excreta noxious gas emission, and meat quality of broiler chickens.

This research was conducted to determine the effects Achyranthes japonica extract (AJE) supplementation to corn-soybean meal-wheat-based diet on the growth performance, nutrient digestibility, cecal microflora, excreta noxious gas emission, and meat quality of broiler chickens. A total of 432 one-day-old male Ross 308 broiler chickens, having initial body weight (IBW) of 41.11 ± 1.65 g were randomly allotted to 4 dietary treatments. Each treatment had 6 replicates cages with 18 broilers per cage. Dietary treatments composed of corn-wheat-soybean meal-based diets along with the addition of 0, 0.025, 0.05, and 0.1% of AJE. Bodyweight gain (BWG) and average daily feed intake (ADFI) were linearly influenced by the supplementation of AJE duringphase1 and 2 and the overall trial period. Inclusion of increasing levels of AJE linearly improved the digestibility of dry matter (DM) on d 35. Dietary supplementation of increasing levels of AJE failed to show significant effects on cecal Lactobacillus, coliform, and Salmonella counts, excreta noxious gas ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, total mercaptans, carbon dioxide, acetic acid and propionic acid emission, meat quality, and relative organ weight. Therefore, we concluded that supplementation of 0.1% of AJE in diets could improve BWG and ADFI, dry matter digestibility in broilers.

Discovery of a dual-action small molecule that improves neuropathological features of Alzheimer's disease mice.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by complex, multifactorial neuropathology, suggesting that small molecules targeting multiple neuropathological factors are likely required to successfully impact clinical progression. Acid sphingomyelinase (ASM) activation has been recognized as an important contributor to these neuropathological features in AD, leading to the concept of using ASM inhibitors for the treatment of this disorder. Here we report the identification of KARI 201, a direct ASM inhibitor evaluated for AD treatment. KARI 201 exhibits highly selective inhibition effects on ASM, with excellent pharmacokinetic properties, especially with regard to brain distribution. Unexpectedly, we found another role of KARI 201 as a ghrelin receptor agonist, which also has therapeutic potential for AD treatment. This dual role of KARI 201 in neurons efficiently rescued neuropathological features in AD mice, including amyloid beta deposition, autophagy dysfunction, neuroinflammation, synaptic loss, and decreased hippocampal neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity, leading to an improvement in memory function. Our data highlight the possibility of potential clinical application of KARI 201 as an innovative and multifaceted drug for AD treatment.

Effect of Lactic Acid Bacteria on the Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism of Ginsenosides in Mice.

This study aims to investigate the effect of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) on in vitro and in vivo metabolism and the pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides in mice. When the in vitro fermentation test of RGE with LAB was carried out, protopanaxadiol (PPD) and protopanaxadiol (PPD), which are final metabolites of ginsenosides but not contained in RGE, were greatly increased. Compound K (CK), ginsenoside Rh1 (GRh1), and GRg3 also increased by about 30%. Other ginsenosides with a sugar number of more than 2 showed a gradual decrease by fermentation with LAB for 7 days, suggesting the involvement of LAB in the deglycosylation of ginsenosides. Incubation of single ginsenoside with LAB produced GRg3, CK, and PPD with the highest formation rate and GRd, GRh2, and GF with the lower rate among PPD-type ginsenosides. Among PPT-type ginsenosides, GRh1 and PPT had the highest formation rate. The amoxicillin pretreatment (20 mg/kg/day, twice a day for 3 days) resulted in a significant decrease in the fecal recovery of CK, PPD, and PPT through the blockade of deglycosylation of ginsenosides after single oral administrations of RGE (2 g/kg) in mice. The plasma concentrations of CK, PPD, and PPT were not detectable without change in GRb1, GRb2, and GRc in this group. LAB supplementation (1 billion CFU/2 g/kg/day for 1 week) after the amoxicillin treatment in mice restored the ginsenoside metabolism and the plasma concentrations of ginsenosides to the control level. In conclusion, the alterations in the gut microbiota environment could change the ginsenoside metabolism and plasma concentrations of ginsenosides. Therefore, the supplementation of LAB with oral administrations of RGE would help increase plasma concentrations of deglycosylated ginsenosides such as CK, PPD, and PPT.

Improved Hygroscopicity and Bioavailability of Solid Dispersion of Red Ginseng Extract with Silicon Dioxide.

This study aims to develop a powder formulation for the Korean red ginseng extract (RGE) and to evaluate its in vitro and in vivo formulation characteristics. The solid dispersion of RGE was prepared with hydrophilic carriers using a freeze-drying method. After conducting the water sorption-desorption isothermogram (relative humidity between 30 and 70% RH), differential scanning calorimetry thermal behavior, dissolution test, and intestinal permeation study, a solid dispersion formulation of RGE and silicon dioxide (RGE-SiO2) was selected. RGE-SiO2 formulation increased intestinal permeability of ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1), GRb2, GRc, and GRd by 1.6-fold in rat jejunal segments as measured by the Ussing chamber system. A 1.6- to 1.8-fold increase in plasma exposure of GRb1, GRb2, GRc, and GRd in rats was observed following oral administration of RGE-SiO2 (375 mg/kg as RGE). No significant difference was observed in the time to reach maximum concentration (Tmax) and half-life in comparison to those in RGE administered rats (375 mg/kg). In conclusion, formulating solid dispersion of RGE with amorphous SiO2, the powder formulation of RGE was successfully formulated with improved hygroscopicity, increased intestinal permeability, and enhanced oral bioavailability and is therefore suitable for processing solid formulations of RGE product.

Pharmacokinetic Drug-Drug Interactions and Herb-Drug Interactions.

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Enhanced Bioavailability and Efficacy of Silymarin Solid Dispersion in Rats with Acetaminophen-Induced Hepatotoxicity.

We evaluated the bioavailability, liver distribution, and efficacy of silymarin-D-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) solid dispersion (silymarin-SD) in rats with acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity (APAP) compared with silymarin alone. The solubility of silybin, the major and active component of silymarin, in the silymarin-SD group increased 23-fold compared with the silymarin group. The absorptive permeability of silybin increased by 4.6-fold and its efflux ratio decreased from 5.5 to 0.6 in the presence of TPGS. The results suggested that TPGS functioned as a solubilizing agent and permeation enhancer by inhibiting efflux pump. Thus, silybin concentrations in plasma and liver were increased in the silymarin-SD group and liver distribution increased 3.4-fold after repeated oral administration of silymarin-SD (20 mg/kg as silybin) for five consecutive days compared with that of silymarin alone (20 mg/kg as silybin). Based on higher liver silybin concentrations in the silymarin-SD group, the therapeutic effects of silymarin-SD in hepatotoxic rats were evaluated and compared with silymarin administration only. Elevated alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase levels were significantly decreased by silymarin-SD, silymarin, and TPGS treatments, but these decreases were much higher in silymarin-SD animals than in those treated with silymarin or TPGS. In conclusion, silymarin-SD (20 mg/kg as silybin, three times per day for 5 days) exhibited hepatoprotective properties toward hepatotoxic rats and these properties were superior to silymarin alone, which may be attributed to increased solubility, enhanced intestinal permeability, and increased liver distribution of the silymarin-SD formulation.

Involvement of Organic Anion Transporters in the Pharmacokinetics and Drug Interaction of Rosmarinic Acid.

We investigated the involvement of drug transporters in the pharmacokinetics of rosmarinic acid in rats as well as the transporter-mediated drug interaction potential of rosmarinic acid in HEK293 cells overexpressing clinically important solute carrier transporters and also in rats. Intravenously injected rosmarinic acid showed bi-exponential decay and unchanged rosmarinic acid was mainly eliminated by urinary excretion, suggesting the involvement of transporters in its renal excretion. Rosmarinic acid showed organic anion transporter (OAT)1-mediated active transport with a Km of 26.5 µM and a Vmax of 69.0 pmol/min in HEK293 cells overexpressing OAT1, and the plasma concentrations of rosmarinic acid were increased by the co-injection of probenecid because of decreased renal excretion due to OAT1 inhibition. Rosmarinic acid inhibited the transport activities of OAT1, OAT3, organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP)1B1, and OATP1B3 with IC50 values of 60.6 µM, 1.52 µM, 74.8 µM, and 91.3 µM, respectively, and the inhibitory effect of rosmarinic acid on OAT3 transport activity caused an in vivo pharmacokinetic interaction with furosemide by inhibiting its renal excretion and by increasing its plasma concentration. In conclusion, OAT1 and OAT3 are the major transporters that may regulate the pharmacokinetic properties of rosmarinic acid and may cause herb-drug interactions with rosmarinic acid, although their clinical relevance awaits further evaluation.

A Glycosylated Prodrug to Attenuate Neuroinflammation and Improve Cognitive Deficits in Alzheimer's Disease Transgenic Mice.

We report a prodrug, Glu-DAPPD, to overcome the shortcomings of an anti-neuroinflammatory molecule, N,N'-diacetyl-p-phenylenediamine (DAPPD), in biological applicability for potential therapeutic applications. We suspect that Glu-DAPPD can release DAPPD through endogenous enzymatic bioconversion. Consequently, Glu-DAPPD exhibits in vivo efficacies in alleviating neuroinflammation, reducing amyloid-ß aggregate accumulation, and improving cognitive function in Alzheimer's disease transgenic mice. Our studies demonstrate that the prodrug approach is suitable and effective toward developing drug candidates against neurodegeneration.

Pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides following repeated oral administration of red ginseng extract significantly differ between species of experimental animals.

We aimed to investigate ginsenoside pharmacokinetics in mice and rats following the repeated oral administration of red ginseng extract (RGE) (2 g/kg/day for 7 days). In mouse plasma, seven protopanaxadiol (PPD)-type ginsenosides (20(S)-ginsenoside Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Rg3, 20(S)-compound K, and 20(S)-PPD) and one protopanaxatriol (PPT)-type 20(S)-ginsenoside Re were detected, whereas 20(S)-ginsenoside Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, 20(S)-PPD, and 20(S)-PPT were detected in rat plasma. The tetra- or tri-glycosylated PPD-type ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd, high content ginsenosides in RGE, showed high plasma exposure, a short absorption time (Tmax), and a long elimination time (T1/2) among the ginsenosides detected in both species. Among the deglycosylated metabolites existing in the feces, 20(S)-compound K and 20(S)-PPD in mice and 20(S)-PPD and 20(S)-PPT in rats were found in the plasma samples. In addition to the differences in the ginsenosides detected in mice and rats, the Tmax and T1/2 of 20(S)-PPD and 20(S)-PPT in rats were greater than those in mice, suggesting the species-dependent difference in the gut metabolism and absorption of ginsenosides in the pathway from 20(S)-ginsenoside Rd to 20(S)-PPD and from 20(S)-ginsenoside Re to 20(S)-PPT. In conclusion, the choice of animal model should be the subject of careful consideration when exploring the pharmacology of RGE with specific focus on the plasma profile of an individual ginsenoside.

The Development and Validation of a Novel "Dual Cocktail" Probe for Cytochrome P450s and Transporter Functions to Evaluate Pharmacokinetic Drug-Drug and Herb-Drug Interactions.

This study was designed to develop and validate a 10 probe drug cocktail named "Dual Cocktail", composed of caffeine (Cyp1a2 in rat and CYP1A2 in human, 1 mg/kg), diclofenac (Cyp2c11 in rat and CYP2C9 in human, 2 mg/kg), omeprazole (Cyp2c11 in rat and CYP2C19 in human, 2 mg/kg), dextromethorphan (Cyp2d2 in rat and CYP2D6 in human, 10 mg/kg), nifedipine (Cyp3a1 in rat and CYP3A4 in human, 0.5 mg/kg), metformin (Oct1/2 in rat and OCT1/2 in human, 0.5 mg/kg), furosemide (Oat1/3 in rat and OAT1/3 in human, 0.1 mg/kg), valsartan (Oatp2 in rat and OATP1B1/1B3 in human, 0.2 mg/kg), digoxin (P-gp in rat and human, 2 mg/kg), and methotrexate (Mrp2 in rat and MRP2 in human, 0.5 mg/kg), for the evaluation of pharmacokinetic drug-drug and herb-drug interactions through the modulation of a representative panel of CYP enzymes or transporters in rats. To ensure no interaction among the ten probe substrates, we developed a 2-step evaluation protocol. In the first step, the pharmacokinetic properties of five individual CYP probe substrates and five individual transporter substrates were compared with the pharmacokinetics of five CYP cocktail or five transporters cocktails in two groups of randomly assigned rats. Next, a pharmacokinetic comparison was conducted between the CYP or transporter cocktail group and the dual cocktail group, respectively. None of the ten comparison groups was found to be statistically significant, indicating the CYP and transporter substrate sets or dual cocktail set could be concomitantly administered in rats. The "Dual Cocktail" was further validated by assessing the metabolism of nifedipine and omeprazole, which was significantly reduced by a single oral dose of ketoconazole (10 mg/kg); however, no changes were observed in the pharmacokinetic parameters of other probe substrates. Additionally, multiple oral doses of rifampin (20 mg/kg) reduced the plasma concentrations of nifedipine and digoxin, although not any of the other substrates. In conclusion, the dual cocktail can be used to characterize potential pharmacokinetic drug-drug interactions by simultaneously monitoring the activity of multiple CYP isoforms and transporters.