Community Kangaroo Mother Care: implementation and potential for neonatal survival and health in very low-income settings.

OBJECTIVE: Immediate Kangaroo Mother Care (KMC), an intervention following childbirth whereby the newborn is placed skin-to-skin (STS) on mother's chest to promote thermal regulation, breastfeeding and maternal-newborn bonding, is being taught in very low-income countries to improve newborn health and survival. Existing data are reviewed to document the association between community-based KMC (CKMC) implementation and its potential benefits. STUDY DESIGN: New analyses of the sole randomized controlled study of CKMC in Bangladesh and others' experiences with immediate KMC are presented. RESULT: Newborns held STS less than 7 h per day in the first 2 days of life do not experience substantially better health or survival than babies without being held STS. CONCLUSION: Most women who were taught CKMC hold their newborns STS, but do so in a token manner unlikely to improve health or survival. Serious challenges exist to provide effective training and postpartum support to achieve adequate STS practices. These challenges must be overcome before scaling up.

Gender differences in delays in diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the gender variations in delay from symptom onset to help seeking, diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis (TB) using DOTS at community level, in 10 subdistricts of Bangladesh with 2.5 million people under a non-governmental organization's (Building Resources Across Communities, or BRAC) DOTS programme for TB control. DESIGN: A cross-sectional survey of 1000 newly diagnosed pulmonary TB patients (500 women and 500 men). FINDINGS: Women, in comparison with men, had significantly longer mean and median delays in total delay (63.2 and 61.0 days vs. 60.3 and 53 days, respectively), total diagnostic delay (61.2, 60.0 vs. 58.5, 52.0 days), patient's delay (51.9, 50.0 vs. 48.7, 42.0 days) and treatment delay (2.0, 1.0 vs. 1.9, 1.0 day). Patient's mean and median delays were longer than the health system delay. However, patient gender showed strong association with total delay, total diagnostic delay and patient's delay. Older age of women was significantly associated with longer patient and treatment delay categories, respectively. CONCLUSION: Compared with men, women experienced longer delays at various stages of the clinical process of help seeking for TB. This warrants appropriate measures to improve the situation.

Stigma, Gender, and their Impact on Patients with Tuberculosis in Rural Bangladesh.

In addition to marginalization by poverty and ethnicity, gender is likely to contribute to vulnerability to TB-related stigma affecting women. Stigma often contributes to psychosocial problems and emotional suffering, and it may hinder help seeking and treatment adherence. TB-related stigma and its gender-specific features have not been carefully studied in Bangladesh, and such research is needed to reduce adverse effects of stigma. This study assessed and compared stigma in women and men, and identified crosscutting and gender-specific features of TB-related stigma. To assess stigma and the context of TB-related illness experience, meaning and help seeking behavior from patients' perspectives, a cultural epidemiological study administered a locally adapted semi-structured EMIC interview to 50 women and 52 men with pulmonary TB in rural Bangladesh. Indicators of TB-related stigma were assessed individually and collectively in a validated index. They were compared by sex, and illness narratives elaborated features of stigma with reference to features of TB. The study showed that six indicators of TB-related stigma were more prominent in accounts of women and two were more prominent in men's interviews. Gender differences appeared somewhat less after adjusting for other sociodemographic variables, and age was most significantly inversely related to stigma. Features of stigma more prominent in the accounts of women included feeling shamed or embarrassed, thinking less of themselves and feeling that others refused to visit or avoided them. Men were less likely to disclose their condition to a confidant, stay away from work or report that their spouse refused sex because of TB. Effective public health information and counselling sensitive to gender-specific features of stigma are needed to protect TB patients from the adverse impact of avoidable stigma. Further research is needed to clarify effects of gender-specific features of felt and enacted stigma on help seeking and treatment adherence.

Poverty status and health equity: evidence from rural Bangladesh.

Many studies have examined the health inequities between different social groups, often measured by individual independent variables, such as education, gender, ethnicity, geography, rich, poor, etc. Although inequities are increasingly widening, a few studies have looked at the health inequity between different poverty groups within the poor. The present study, using equity terms, examined the use of health services in two rural areas of Bangladesh. Using a multistage sampling method, a total of 80 villages were selected from the Bogra and Dinajpur sadar thanas (subdistricts) for the study. A total of 4003 households in these villages were visited for data collection on mortality and fertility, while data related to use of health services was collected from a subsample of 1032 households. A poverty index, constructed using three variables (household landholding, education level of head of household, and self-rated categorization of household's annual food security), categorized the households into three groups: extreme poor, moderate poor and non-poor. Overall, the data revealed considerable inequities in many study indicators between the poor and the non-poor. However, inequities of varying degrees were also found between the extreme poor and the moderate poor. Lower levels of inequities were found between the poor and the non-poor in the use of health services, which were easily accessible and free of charge (immunization, vitamin A capsule, etc.). On the whole, the extreme poor were less likely to use health services than the moderate poor and the non-poor, suggesting the need for a more appropriate programme to address their pressing health needs.

Adaptation of kangaroo mother care for community-based application.

OBJECTIVE: Working with a multidisciplinary team of Ecuadorians, Bangladeshis and Americans, we developed a simple protocol for community-based implementation of kangaroo mother care (CKMC) that does not require birth weight or clinical judgment to identify which newborns should receive CKMC. CKMC could stabilize newborns and possibly reduce neonatal mortality where there is little medical care for newborns and low birth weight (LBW) is common. STUDY DESIGN: During their CKMC training, community-based workers identified 35 expectant or recently delivered women in the pilot study area and taught them about CKMC. Women were interviewed at 1 month postpartum to evaluate their experience with CKMC. RESULTS: In all, 77% of mothers initiated skin-to-skin care and 85% with LBW babies did so (37% were LBW). CKMC mothers delayed newborn bathing. Few slept upright with their newborns. CONCLUSIONS: CKMC was quickly and popularly adopted. A randomized controlled cluster trial is planned to determine whether CKMC reduces neonatal mortality.

Gender and rural-urban differences in reported health status by older people in Bangladesh.

The study aims to (i) describe regional variation and gender differences in health status of older people (60 years and older) in Bangladesh, indicated by self-reported health problems and functional ability; (ii) explore influence of socio-economic factors on health status of older people. In a cross-sectional study in rural and urban Bangladesh, 696 older persons were asked about their health problems and ability to manage activities of daily living (ADL). More than 95% of older people reported health problems. Approximately 80% of elderly women in both the regions reported having four or more health problems compared with 42% and 63% elderly men in the urban and rural regions, respectively. More women (urban: 55%; rural: 36%) than men (urban: 32%; rural: 22%) also reported difficulties with ADL. Irrespective of age, sex and area of residence, those reporting greater number of health problems were more likely to report difficulty with at least one ADL task. Reporting pattern of specific health problems varied between urban and rural regions. Socio-economic indicators were found to have little influence on reporting of health problems, particularly in the rural region. Observed regional difference may be related to the influence of social and environmental factors, and level of awareness concerning certain health conditions.

Do side-effects reduce compliance to iron supplementation? A study of daily- and weekly-dose regimens in pregnancy.

Side-effects of iron supplementation lead to poor compliance. A weekly-dose schedule of iron supplementation rather than a daily-dose regimen has been suggested to produce fewer side-effects, thereby achieving a higher compliance. This study compared side-effects of iron supplementation and their impact on compliance among pregnant women in Bangladesh. These women were assigned to receive either weekly doses of 2 x 60 mg iron (one tablet each Friday morning and evening) or a daily dose of 1 x 60 mg iron. Fifty antenatal care centres were randomly assigned to prescribe either a weekly- or a daily-supplementation regimen (86 women in each group). Side-effects were assessed by recall after one month of supplementation and used for predicting compliance in the second and third months of supplementation. Compliance was monitored using a pill bottle equipped with an electronic counting device that recorded date and time whenever the pill bottle was opened. Of five gastrointestinal side-effects (heartburn, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, or constipation) assessed, vomiting occurred more frequently in the weekly group (21%) than in the daily group (11%, p<0.05). Compliance (ratio between observed and recommended tablet intake) was significantly higher in the weekly-supplementation regimen (93%) than in the daily-supplementation regimen (61%, p<0.05). Overall, gastrointestinal side-effects were not significantly associated with compliance. However, the presence of nausea and/or vomiting reduced compliance in both the regimens-but only among women from the lower socioeconomic group. In conclusion, weekly supplementation of iron in pregnancy had a higher compliance compared to daily supplementation of iron despite a higher frequency of side-effects. The findings support the view that gastrointestinal side-effects generally have a limited influence on compliance, at least in the dose ranges studied. Efforts to further reduce side-effects of iron supplementation may not be a successful strategy for improving compliance and effectiveness of antenatal iron supplementation.

Cost-effectiveness of community health workers in tuberculosis control in Bangladesh.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the cost-effectiveness of the tuberculosis (TB) programme run by the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), which uses community health workers (CHWs), with that of the government TB programme which does not use CHWs. METHODS: TB control statistics and cost data for July 1996 - June 1997 were collected from both government and BRAC thanas (subdistricts) in rural Bangladesh. To measure the cost per patient cured, total costs were divided by the total number of patients cured. FINDINGS: In the BRAC and government areas, respectively, a total of 186 and 185 TB patients were identified over one year, with cure rates among sputum-positive patients of 84% and 82%. However, the cost per patient cured was US$ 64 in the BRAC area compared to US$ 96 in the government area. CONCLUSION: The government programme was 50% more expensive for similar outcomes. Although both the BRAC and government TB control programmes appeared to achieve satisfactory cure rates using DOTS (a five-point strategy), the involvement of CHWs was found to be more cost-effective in rural Bangladesh. With the same budget, the BRAC programme could cure three TB patients for every two in the government programme.