Lipid rafts and HIV pathogenesis: host membrane cholesterol is required for infection by HIV type 1.

In a previous study we showed that budding of HIV-1 particles occurs at highly specialized membrane microdomains known as lipid rafts. These microdomains are characterized by a distinct lipid composition that includes high concentrations of cholesterol, sphingolipids, and glycolipids. Since cholesterol is known to play a key role in the entry of some other viruses, our observation of HIV budding from lipid rafts led us to investigate the role in HIV-1 entry of cholesterol and lipid rafts in the plasma membrane of susceptible cells. We have used 2-OH-propyl-beta-cyclodextrin (beta-cyclodextrin) to deplete cellular cholesterol and disperse lipid rafts. Our results show that removal of cellular cholesterol rendered primary cells and cell lines highly resistant to HIV-1-mediated syncytium formation and to infection by both CXCR4- and CCR5-specific viruses. beta-Cyclodextrin treatment of cells partially reduced HIV-1 binding, while rendering chemokine receptors highly sensitive to antibody-mediated internalization. There was no effect on CD4 expression. All of the above-described effects were readily reversed by incubating cholesterol-depleted cells with low concentrations of cholesterol-loaded beta-cyclodextrin to restore cholesterol levels. Cholesterol depletion made cells resistant to SDF-1-induced binding to ICAM-1 through LFA-1. Since LFA-1 contributes significantly to cell binding by HIV-1, this latter effect may have contributed to the observed reduction in HIV-1 binding to cells after treatment with beta-cyclodextrin. Our results indicate that cholesterol may be critical to the HIV-1 coreceptor function of chemokine receptors and is required for infection of cells by HIV-1.

Mutations in the matrix protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 inhibit surface expression and virion incorporation of viral envelope glycoproteins in CD4+ T lymphocytes.

Highly conserved amino acids in the second helix structure of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) MA protein were identified to be critical for the incorporation of viral Env proteins into HIV-1 virions from transfected COS-7 cells. The effects of these MA mutations on viral replication in the HIV-1 natural target cells, CD4+ T lymphocytes, were evaluated by using a newly developed system. In CD4+ T lymphocytes, mutations in the MA domain of HIV-1 Gag also inhibited the incorporation of viral Env proteins into mature HIV-1 virions. Furthermore, mutations in the MA domain of HIV-1 Gag reduced surface expression of viral Env proteins in CD4+ T lymphocytes. The synthesis of gp160 and cleavage of gp160 to gp120 were not significantly affected by MA mutations. On the other hand, the stability of gp120 in MA mutant-infected cells was significantly reduced compared to that in the parental wild-type virus-infected cells. These results suggest that functional interaction between HIV-1 Gag and Env proteins is not only critical for efficient incorporation of Env proteins into mature virions but also important for proper intracellular transport and stable surface expression of viral Env proteins in infected CD4+ T lymphocytes. A single amino acid substitution in MA abolished virus infectivity in dividing CD4+ T lymphocytes without significantly affecting virus assembly, virus release, or incorporation of Gag-Pol and Env proteins, suggesting that in addition to its functional role in virus assembly, the MA protein of HIV-1 also plays an important role in other steps of virus replication.