Long-term effects of brain-derived neurotrophic factor on the frequency of inhibitory synaptic events in the rat superficial dorsal horn.

Chronic constriction injury (CCI) of rat sciatic nerve produces a specific pattern of electrophysiological changes in the superficial dorsal horn that lead to central sensitization that is associated with neuropathic pain. These changes can be recapitulated in spinal cord organotypic cultures by long term (5-6 days) exposure to brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) (200 ng/ml). Certain lines of evidence suggest that both CCI and BDNF increase excitatory synaptic drive to putative excitatory neurons while reducing that to putative inhibitory interneurons. Because BDNF slows the rate of discharge of synaptically-driven action potentials in inhibitory neurons, it should also decrease the frequency of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents (sIPSCs) throughout the superficial dorsal horn. To test this possibility, we characterized superficial dorsal horn neurons in organotypic cultures according to five electrophysiological phenotypes that included tonic, delay and irregular firing neurons. Five to 6 days of treatment with 200 ng/ml BDNF decreased sIPSC frequency in tonic and irregular neurons as might be expected if BDNF selectively decreases excitatory synaptic drive to inhibitory interneurons. The frequency of sIPSCs in delay neurons was however increased. Further analysis of the action of BDNF on tetrodotoxin-resistant miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSC) showed that the frequency was increased in delay neurons, unchanged in tonic neurons and decreased in irregular neurons. BDNF may thus reduce action potential frequency in those inhibitory interneurons that project to tonic and irregular neurons but not in those that project to delay neurons.

Pediatric temporal lobectomy for epilepsy.

BACKGROUND: Temporal lobectomy in adults is an accepted form of treatment for patients with intractable complex partial seizures. There have been few long-term studies of children undergoing temporal lobectomy for epilepsy. METHODS: We reviewed the pediatric cases of temporal lobectomy for intractable epilepsy performed by the Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at the University of Alberta Hospitals between 1988 and 2000. All patients had preoperative and postoperative clinical evaluations, seizure charts, drug levels, EEG, CT/MRI, long-term video EEG monitoring and neuropsychological testing. The patients were reassessed at 6 weeks, 6 months and 1 year postoperatively, then yearly. The duration of follow up was 1-10 years (mean 5 years). RESULTS: Forty-two patients were studied (25 males and 17 females). Age at surgery ranged from 18 months to 16 years. The interictal EEG was abnormal in 38 of the 42 patients. Twenty-two patients had focal epileptic discharge and 1 had generalized epileptic discharge. Focal slowing was seen in 9 patients and diffuse slowing in 5 patients. CT scan was abnormal in 17 of 39 patients and normal in 22 of 39. MRI was abnormal in 34 of 42 patients and normal in 8 of 42. Pathology included brain tumors in 14 patients, mesial temporal sclerosis in 8, focal cortical dysplasia in 4, tuberous sclerosis in 4, dual pathology in 4, porencephalic cyst in 1 and normal pathology or gliosis in 6. Thirty-three of 42 patients (78%) were seizure-free following surgery and an additional 5 (12%) had a decrease in seizure frequency. Three patients had complications, but there were no deaths. CONCLUSION: Temporal lobectomy is a safe and effective treatment for children with intractable complex partial seizures. Seventy-eight percent of patients are seizure-free following the surgery and there are few complications. MRI is superior to CT scan for detection of temporal lobe pathology yet failed to detect abnormalities in some patients. The most common pathologies found were brain tumors, mesial temporal sclerosis and developmental lesions. In addition to seizure control, many patients experienced improvement in cognitive and psychosocial function following surgery.

NPY sensitivity and postsynaptic properties of heterotopic neurons in the MAM model of malformation-associated epilepsy.

Neuronal migration disorders (NMDs) can be associated with neurological dysfunction such as mental retardation, and clusters of disorganized cells (heterotopias) often act as seizure foci in medically intractable partial epilepsies. Methylazoxymethanol (MAM) treatment of pregnant rats results in neuronal heterotopias in offspring, especially in hippocampal area CA1. Although the neurons in dysplastic areas in this model are frequently hyperexcitable, the precise mechanisms controlling excitability remain unclear. Here, we used IR-DIC videomicroscopy and whole cell voltage-clamp techniques to test whether the potent anti-excitatory actions of neuropeptide Y (NPY) affected synaptic excitation of heterotopic neurons. We also compared several synaptic and intrinsic properties of heterotopic, layer 2-3 cortical, and CA1 pyramidal neurons, to further characterize heterotopic cells. NPY powerfully inhibited synaptic excitation onto normal and normotopic CA1 cells but was nearly ineffective on responses evoked in heterotopic cells from stimulation sites within the heterotopia. Glutamatergic synaptic responses on heterotopic cells exhibited a comparatively small, D-2-amino-5-phosphopentanoic acid-sensitive, N-methyl-D-aspartate component. Heterotopic neurons also differed from normal CA1 cells in postsynaptic membrane currents, possessing a prominent inwardly rectifying K(+) current sensitive to Cs(+) and Ba(2+), similar to neocortical layer 2-3 pyramidal cells. CA1 cells instead had a prominent Cs(+)- and 4-(N-ethyl-N-phenylamino)-1,2-dimethyl-6-(methylamino) pyrimidinium chloride-sensitive I(h) and negligible inward rectification, unlike heterotopic cells. Thus heterotopic CA1 cells appear to share numerous physiological similarities with neocortical neurons. The lack of NPY's effects on intra-heterotopic inputs, the small contribution of I(h), and abnormal glutamate receptor function, may all contribute to the lowered threshold for epileptiform activity observed in hippocampal heterotopias and could be important factors in epilepsies associated with NMDs.

Pathology and neuroimaging in pediatric temporal lobectomy for intractable epilepsy.

OBJECTIVES: Firstly, to study the pathology at surgery in children undergoing temporal lobectomy for intractable partial epilepsy. Secondly, to compare neuroimaging techniques (CT, MRI) in the preoperative detection of pathology. Lastly, to examine the surgical outcome in children. METHODS: Forty-two pediatric patients undergoing temporal lobectomy for intractable epilepsy at the Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at the University of Alberta Hospital between the years 1988-1998 were studied. Patients had extensive preoperative investigations including CT and MRI. The pathology at surgery was reviewed and compared to preoperative neuroimaging. Charts were reviewed to determine surgical outcome. RESULTS: Brain tumors were the most common pathology, found in 13/42 patients. Mesial temporal sclerosis (MTS) was found in 8 patients and dual pathology in an additional 5. Focal cortical dysplasia (FCD) was seen in 4 patients, 1 patient had a porencephalic cyst and 4 patients had tubers of tuberous sclerosis. Seven patients had no specific pathology detected. MRI was clearly more sensitive than CT in the detection of pathology. MRI was abnormal in 27/42 cases (64%), while CT scan was found to be abnormal in only 12/39 (31%). Surgical outcome was excellent, with 34/42 patients (80%) having an Engel class I outcome. One patient had significant improvement with an Engel class II outcome, 3 (7%) had little improvement (Engel class III) and 4 (10%) were unchanged (Engel class IV). Three patients (7%) had surgical complications. CONCLUSIONS: A wide variety of developmental pathology is seen following temporal lobectomy for intractable epilepsy of childhood. Brain tumors, FCD and MTS are common. MRI is superior to CT in the detection of pathology, which may be subtle in children. Surgical outcome is excellent, with most children being seizure free and few complications being seen.

Neuropeptide Y(5) receptors reduce synaptic excitation in proximal subiculum, but not epileptiform activity in rat hippocampal slices.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) potently inhibits excitatory synaptic transmission in the hippocampus, acting predominantly via a presynaptic Y(2) receptor. Recent reports that the Y(5) receptor may mediate the anticonvulsant actions of NPY in vivo prompted us to test the hypothesis that Y(5) receptors inhibit synaptic excitation in the hippocampal slice and, furthermore, that they are effective in an in vitro model of anticonvulsant action. Two putative Y(5) receptor-preferring agonists inhibited excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) evoked by stimulation of stratum radiatum in pyramidal cells. We recorded initially from area CA1 pyramidal cells, but subsequently switched to cells from the subiculum, where a much greater frequency of response was observed to Y(5) agonist application. Both D-Trp(32)NPY (1 microM) and [ahx(8-20)]Pro(34)NPY (3 microM), a centrally truncated, Y(1)/Y(5) agonist we synthesized, inhibited stimulus-evoked EPSCs in subicular pyramidal cells by 44.0 +/- 5.7% and 51.3 +/- 3.5% (mean +/- SE), in 37 and 58% of cells, respectively. By contrast, the less selective centrally truncated agonist, [ahx(8-20)] NPY (1 microM), was more potent (66.4 +/- 4.1% inhibition) and more widely effective, suppressing the EPSC in 86% of subicular neurons. The site of action of all NPY agonists tested was most probably presynaptic, because agonist application caused no changes in postsynaptic membrane properties. The selective Y(1) antagonist, BIBP3226 (1 microM), did not reduce the effect of either more selective agonist, indicating that they activated presynaptic Y(5) receptors. Y(5) receptor-mediated synaptic inhibition was more frequently observed in slices from younger animals, whereas the nonselective agonist appeared equally effective at all ages tested. Because of the similarity with the previously reported actions of Y(2) receptors, we tested the ability of Y(5) receptor agonists to suppress stimulus train-induced bursting (STIB), an in vitro model of ictaform activity, in both area CA3 and the subiculum. Neither [ahx(8-20)]Pro(34)NPY nor D-Trp(32)NPY were significantly effective in suppressing or shortening STIB-induced afterdischarge, with <20% of slices responding to these agonists in recordings from CA3 and none in subiculum. By contrast, 1 microM each of [ahx(8-20)]NPY, the Y(2) agonist, [ahx(5-24)]NPY, and particularly NPY itself suppressed the afterdischarge in area CA3 and the subiculum, as reported earlier. We conclude that Y(5) receptors appear to regulate excitability to some degree in the subiculum of young rats, but their contribution is relatively small compared with those of Y(2) receptors, declines with age, and is insufficient to block or significantly attenuate STIB-induced afterdischarges.

Neuropeptide Y: emerging evidence for a functional role in seizure modulation.

The high concentration of the tyrosine-rich polypeptide, neuropeptide Y (NPY), and the increase in the number of its receptor subtypes that have been characterized in the brain, raise the question of a functional role for NPY in the CNS. In addition to its peripheral actions on cardiovascular regulation, much attention has, therefore, been devoted to the CNS effects of NPY because of its stimulatory properties on food intake, its role in anxiolysis and its putative involvement in memory retention. Emerging evidence points to an important role for NPY in the regulation of neuronal activity both under physiological conditions and during pathological hyperactivity such as that which occurs during seizures. This article reviews recent studies that have shown the changes induced by seizures in the level and distribution of NPY, its receptor subtypes and their respective mRNAs in rat forebrain. Biochemical and electrophysiological findings in experimental models and tissue from human epilepsy sufferers suggest that NPY-mediated neurotransmission is altered by seizures. The pharmacological evidence and functional studies in NPY knockout mice highlight a crucial role for endogenous NPY, acting on different NPY receptors, in the control of seizures.

Integration of NPY, AGRP, and melanocortin signals in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus: evidence of a cellular basis for the adipostat.

Energy stores are held relatively constant in many mammals. The circuitry necessary for maintaining energy homeostasis should (1) sense the amount of energy stored in adipose tissue, (2) sense and integrate the multiple opposing signals regarding nutritional state, and (3) provide output regulating energy intake and expenditure to maintain energy homeostasis. We demonstrate that individual neurons within the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVH) are capable of detection and integration of orexigenic (neuropeptide Y [NPY]) and anorexigenic (melanocortin) signals, that NPY and melanocortins are functional antagonists of each other within the PVH in the regulation of feeding behavior, and that melanocortin administration within the PVH regulates both feeding behavior and energy expenditure. These data provide a cellular basis for the adipostat within neurons in the PVH that appear to be jointly regulated by NPY- and melanocortin-responsive neurons.

Changes in mitochondrial function resulting from synaptic activity in the rat hippocampal slice.

Digital imaging microfluorimetry was used to visualize changes in mitochondrial potential and intracellular Ca2+ concentration, [Ca2+]i, in thick slices of rat hippocampus. Electrical activity, especially stimulus train-induced bursting (STIB) activity, produced slow, prolonged changes in mitochondrial potential within hippocampal slices as revealed by fluorescence measurements with rhodamine dyes. Changes in mitochondrial potential showed both temporal and spatial correlations with the intensity of the electrical activity. Patterned changes in mitochondrial potential were observed to last from tens of seconds to minutes as the consequence of epileptiform discharges. STIB-associated elevations in [Ca2+]i were also prolonged and exhibited a spatial pattern similar to that of the mitochondrial depolarization. The mitochondrial depolarization was sensitive to TTX and glutamate receptor blockers ([Mg2+]o and CNQX or DNQX plus D-AP-5) and to the inhibition of glutamate release by activation of presynaptic NPY receptors. The monitoring of mitochondrial potential in slice preparations provides a new tool for mapping synaptic activity in the brain and for determining the roles of mitochondria in regulation of brain synaptic activity.

Inhibition of synaptic transmission by neuropeptide Y in rat hippocampal area CA1: modulation of presynaptic Ca2+ entry.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) agonists inhibit glutamate release by a presynaptic action at the CA3-CA1 synapse of rat hippocampus. We have examined the relationship between [Capre]t via presynaptic, voltage-dependent calcium channels (VDCCs), measured optically by using the fluorescent calcium indicator fura-2, and transmitter release, measured electrophysiologically. Activation of presynaptic NPY Y2 receptors reduced [Capre]t and thereby inhibited synaptic transmission. Multiple calcium channels are involved in synaptic transmission at this synapse. Activation of Y2 receptors inhibits N-type, P/Q-type, and unidentified presynaptic VDCCs. The inhibition of each of these calcium channel types contributes to the reduction of [Capre]t by Y2 receptors. Activation of adenosine receptors fully occluded the inhibition of presynaptic calcium influx by Y2 receptors but not the inhibition by GABAB receptors, suggesting a convergent action for Y2 and adenosine receptors, probably by coupling to the same G-protein.

Neuropeptide Y suppresses epileptiform activity in rat hippocampus in vitro.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) potently inhibits glutamate-mediated synaptic transmission in areas CA1 and CA3 of the rat hippocampus without affecting other synaptic inputs onto principal cells of the hippocampal formation, suggesting that its biological role may include the regulation of excitability within the hippocampus. Here we examine NPY's actions in three in vitro models of epilepsy [0 Mg2+-, picrotoxin-, and stimulus-train-induced bursting (STIB)] with the use of extracellular and whole cell patch-clamp recordings from rat hippocampal-entorhinal cortex slices. Perfusion of the slice with saline that had Mg2+ omitted (0 Mg2+) or that had picrotoxin (100 microM) added resulted in brief spontaneous bursts (SBs) resembling interictal discharges. SB frequency is significantly reduced in both models by 1 microM NPY and by the Y2-preferring agonists peptide (P)YY(3-36) (1 microM) and 1-4-(6-aminohexanoic acid)-25-36 ([ahx(5-24)] NPY; 3 microM). The Y1-preferring agonist Leu31-Pro34NPY (1 microM) is considerably less potent, but also reduces burst frequency, even in the presence of the selective Y1 receptor antagonist GR231118, suggesting the involvement of a different receptor. In STIB, high-frequency stimulus trains to stratum radiatum of area CA2/CA3 result in clonic or tonic-clonic ictaform primary afterdischarges (primary ADs) as well as longer, spontaneous secondary ictaform discharges and SBs similar to those in the other models. Primary AD duration is greatly reduced or abolished by Y2- but not Y1-preferring agonists. SBs, although variable, were inhibited by both Y1 and Y2 agonists. In single and dual whole cell recordings from CA3 pyramidal cells, we frequently observed spontaneous, rhythmic synchronous events (SRSEs) arising after several STIB stimuli. Once established, SRSEs persist in the absence of further stimuli and are insensitive to the application of NPY. SRSEs in pyramidal cells typically occur at 2-4 Hz, are outward currents when cells are clamped near rest (>100 pA at a holding potential of -55 mV), reverse between -60 and -70 mV, and are inhibited by 100 microM picrotoxin, indicating involvement of gamma-aminobutyric acid-A receptors. They are inhibited by blockers of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) but not N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. Whole cell patch-clamp recordings from interneurons in CA3 after STIB reveal NPY-insensitive, rhythmic, inward AMPA-receptor-mediated currents that are similar in frequency to SRSEs seen in pyramidal cells. We conclude that NPY, acting predominantly via Y2 receptors, can dramatically inhibit epileptiform activity in three fundamentally different in vitro models of epilepsy without affecting endogenous inhibitory activity. The results also provide support for the hypothesis that endogenous NPY may normally control excitability in the hippocampus and suggest the potential for NPY receptors as targets for anticonvulsant therapy.

Neuropeptide Y2 receptors inhibit the frequency of spontaneous but not miniature EPSCs in CA3 pyramidal cells of rat hippocampus.

1. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) inhibits synaptic excitation in hippocampal area CA3. We studied its site of action with the use of whole cell patch-clamp recordings from CA3 pyramidal cells of rat hippocampal slices in vitro. 2. Spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs) were isolated with picrotoxin, to block gamma-aminobutyric acid-A receptors, whereas miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs) were isolated by additionally treating the slice with tetrodotoxin (TTX) and/or Cd2+, sEPSCs and mEPSCs were eliminated by the excitatory amino acid antagonists 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (10 microM) and DL-2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (50 microM), and were thus solely attributable to glutamate release. 3. The interval and amplitude distributions of sEPSCS and (TTX-isolated) mEPSCS were analyzed. Either NPY or the rapidly reversible, Y2-receptor-selective agonist [6-aminohexanoic5-24] NPY, ([ahx5-24]NPY) sharply increased the inter-sEPSC intervals in 16 of 16 neurons tested. In 11 of these cells, these agonists also simultaneously shifted the sEPSC amplitude distribution to somewhat smaller amplitudes, whereas in the remaining 5 cells, no concurrent effect on amplitudes was observed. By contrast, in 15 separate neurons treated with 1 microM TTX, neither NPY nor [ahx5-24]NPY altered either mEPSC amplitude or interval distributions of the mEPSCs. 4. To directly compare the effects of Y2 receptor activation on sEPSC and mEPSC properties, we applied [ahx5-24]NPY to the same cell in the absence and presence of TTX (n = 7). sEPSC intervals were characteristically increased by the Y2 agonist in all cells; in six of seven cells the sEPSC distribution was also shifted to smaller amplitudes. TTX application reduced the mean amplitude of the synaptic events more than did [ahx5-24]NPY, while increasing their intervals. [ahx5-24]NPY had no effect in TTX. 5. NPY, acting on a Y2 receptor, inhibits impulse-dependent synaptic excitation of CA3 pyramidal cells of the rat hippocampus by an entirely presynaptic action.

Selective upregulation of T alpha 1 alpha-tubulin and neuropeptide Y mRNAs after intermittent excitatory stimulation in adult rat hippocampus in vivo.

Adult central neurons exhibit significant structural and molecular changes in epilepsy. We have examined changes in two markers of morphological and physiological plasticity, T alpha 1 alpha-tubulin (T alpha 1) and neuropeptide Y (NPY) mRNAs, in response to intermittent (20 Hz, 10 seconds, 1 minute-1) stimulation of the rat perforant path in vivo. Stimulus trains elicited brief (0.5-3 seconds) afterdischarges in the ipsilateral dentate gyrus (DG). Four hours of stimulation caused no significant loss of inhibition in the DG 40-48 hours after stimulation ceased. However, it did lead to an increase in NPY mRNA in neurons of the ipsilateral and, to a lesser extent, contralateral DGs and Ammon's Horn. Many of these were presumably interneurons that normally express NPY. However, dentate granule cells (DGCs), which do not normally express this peptide, also expressed robust levels of NPY mRNA bilaterally. NPY mRNA levels peaked at 4-24 hours and returned to baseline by 48 hours poststimulation. Although 24 hours of stimulation induced a similar increase in interneurons, DGCs showed no detectable NPY mRNA. Afterdischarges were necessary to elevate NPY mRNA expression. Four hours of stimulation elevated T alpha 1 mRNA expression in both ipsilateral and, to a lesser extent, contralateral DGCs; this elevation peaked at 24 hours poststimulation and declined to baseline by 72 hours. Stimulation for 24 hours caused broader changes in T alpha 1 mRNA expression, with increases in DGCs and in CA3 pyramidal cells bilaterally. Acute denervation of the DG did not affect T alpha 1 mRNA level in the hippocampal formation. Elevated synaptic input resulting in afterdischarges, but not necessarily in excitability changes in the DG, led to alterations in the expression of molecular markers of plasticity. These changes may reflect adaptive responses to physiological activation.

Neuropeptide Y1 receptors inhibit N-type calcium currents and reduce transient calcium increases in rat dentate granule cells.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is far more abundant in the dentate gyrus than elsewhere in the hippocampal formation, but it does not alter the synaptic excitation of dentate granule cells (DGCs) as it does for pyramidal cells in areas CA1 and CA3. NPY inhibited depolarization-induced increases in intracellular Ca2+ concentrations ([Ca2+]i) in DGCs in hippocampal slices, without altering the resting [Ca2+]i. NPY inhibited Ca2+ currents (ICa) via a Y1 receptor in 84% of acutely isolated DGCs and via a Y2 receptor in 31% of the NPY-responsive cells tested. ICa inhibition was completely occluded by omega-conotoxin-GVIA but not by nimodipine. The inhibition of ICa was accompanied by a change in the time course of ICa activation in only 27% of NPY-responsive cells. Only 23% of DGCs responded to NPY when Ba2+ was substituted for extracellular Ca2+ and when [Ca2+]i was strongly buffered. Therefore, NPY inhibits an N-type ICa in DGCs, mainly via Y1 receptors. Furthermore, it seems that more than one mechanism, one of which may be sensitive to [Ca2+]i, may couple NPY receptors to the Ca2+ channels in DGCs. Because the release of dynorphin from DGCs depends in part on N-type currents, NPY receptors are poised to regulate the release of opioid peptides from DGC somata and dendrites.

Effects of neuropeptide Y on the electrical properties of neurons.

Neuropeptide Y, one of the scions of the pancreatic polypeptide family, is found throughout the nervous system. Based on its abundance alone, one would expect neuropeptide Y to play an important role in the regulation of neuronal activity, and indeed many pharmacological studies have demonstrated neuromodulatory effects of neuropeptide Y. Here, William F. Colmers and David Bleakman review the known actions of neuropeptide Y on the electrical properties of nerve cells. Neuropeptide Y inhibits Ca2+ currents, and modulates transmitter release in a highly selective manner. Neuropeptide Y might be quite important in the regulation of neuronal state, as exemplified by its actions in the hippocampus and the dorsal raphé nucleus.

Mechanism of presynaptic inhibition by neuropeptide Y at sympathetic nerve terminals.

Calcium influx through voltage-sensitive Ca2+ channels is the normal physiological stimulus for the activity-dependent release of neurotransmitters at synaptic contacts. It has been postulated that presynaptic inhibition of transmitter release is due to a reduction in Ca2+ influx at the nerve terminal, which could result from the direct inhibition of Ca2+ channels. Neuropeptide Y and noradrenaline act as cotransmitters at many sympathetic synapses. Both of these substances produce presynaptic inhibition and can inhibit Ca2+ currents in the soma of sympathetic neurons. Here we provide direct evidence that presynaptic inhibition produced by neuropeptide Y at sympathetic nerve terminals is associated with a reduction in Ca2+ influx and that this is due to the selective inhibition of neuronal N-type Ca2+ channels.

The actions of hydrogen sulfide on dorsal raphe serotonergic neurons in vitro.

1. The actions of hydrogen sulfide (HS-) on membrane and synaptic properties of dorsal raphe (DR) serotonergic cells were studied in the in vitro brain stem slice preparation, using intracellular sharp microelectrode and whole-cell recording techniques. 2. Sulfide produced two reversible, concentration-dependent effects on resting membrane properties of DR cells: (1) 14% responded to HS- with a slow onset hyperpolarization or an outward current accompanied by an conductance increase in voltage clamp (holding potential = -60 mV; monophasic outward cell) or (2) 39% responded with a rapid-onset depolarization corresponding to a weakly voltage-dependent inward current showing little or no change in conductance between -115 and -40 mV (monophasic inward cell). In addition, 29.5% showed both the above effects, responding first with a rapid-onset depolarization and then a sustained hyperpolarization. Such cells had membrane currents very similar to those seen in the monophasic inward and outward cells (biphasic cells). Finally, 17.5% of DR cells had no measurable postsynaptic membrane response to HS-. 3. The outward current induced in the presence of HS- had a reversal potential of about -90 mV when recorded either with 2 M KCl or 145 mM potassium gluconate in the pipette and was accompanied by an increase in conductance, suggesting that it is caused by an elevated conductance to K+. 4. This current was sensitive to the removal of external Ca2+ and blockade by Cd2+, suggesting that it is activated by an elevation in internal [Ca2+]. It was also blocked by apamin or Ba2+ and Cs+, both of which revealed an underlying inward current. The outward current was insensitive to the application of a large variety of antagonists to other known voltage- and calcium-dependent K+ channels. Elevation of intracellular ATP using a patch pipette did not prevent the activation of the outward current. 5. HS- reversibly suppressed a voltage-dependent outward current activated in the voltage range of -50 to -40 mV. This current was also blocked by 10 mM tetraethylammonium, suggesting that HS- suppresses the delayed rectifier in DR cells. 6. The inward current could be observed in the presence of HS- not only in monophasic inward cells but also in monophasic outward or biphasic cells whose outward current was selectively blocked. This inward current was sensitive to the removal of extracellular Ca2+, or the the application of relatively low concentrations of Cd2+, suggesting that it is carried by Ca2+. Both these manipulations also blocked the outward current in monophasic outward or biphasic cells.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

On the sites of presynaptic inhibition by neuropeptide Y in rat hippocampus in vitro.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) reduces excitatory synaptic transmission between stratum radiatum and CA1 pyramidal cells in rat hippocampal slice in vitro by a presynaptic action. To understand NPY's role in the control of excitability in hippocampus, its actions on excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission were examined, using intracellular, sharp microelectrode, and tight-seal, whole cell recordings from principal neurons in areas CA1, CA3, and dentate. Bath application of 1 microM NPY reversibly inhibited excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) evoked in CA1 pyramidal cells from either stratum radiatum or stratum oriens by about 50%. Neuropeptide Y also inhibited EPSPs at mossy fiber-CA3, stratum oriens-CA3, and CA3-CA3 synapses by between 45% and 55%. As in CA1, the action of NPY was presynaptic. By contrast, NPY did not inhibit EPSPs evoked in dentate granule cells from either perforant path or commissural inputs. Neuropeptide Y did not alter postsynaptic membrane properties in any cell type. Although NPY attenuated the orthodromically evoked (stratum radiatum) inhibitory postsynaptic potentials in CA1 pyramidal cells by about the same amount as it inhibited the EPSPs, it did not affect the IPSPs evoked in the same cells by antidromic stimulation from alveus. Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials evoked in pharmacological isolation in CA1, CA3, or dentate were also not significantly affected by NPY. The evidence supports the hypothesis that NPY acts at feedforward excitatory synapses to presynaptically reduce the amplitude of excitation as it travels through hippocampal circuits. By contrast, synaptically mediated inhibition is not directly affected by NPY.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Investigations into neuropeptide Y-mediated presynaptic inhibition in cultured hippocampal neurones of the rat.

1. We have examined the effects of neuropeptide Y (NPY) on synaptic transmission and [Ca2+]i signals in rat hippocampal neurones grown in culture. [Ca2+]i in individual neurones displayed frequent spontaneous fluctuations often resulting in an elevated plateau [Ca2+]i. These fluctuations were reduced by tetrodotoxin (1 microM) or combinations of the excitatory amino acid antagonists 6-cyano-7-dinitro-quinoxaline (CNQX) (10 microM) and aminophosphonovalerate (APV) (50 microM), indicating that they were the result of glutamatergic transmission occurring between hippocampal neurones. 2. [Ca2+]i fluctuations were also prevented by Ni2+ (200 microM), by the GABAB receptor agonist, baclofen (10 microM) and by NPY (100 nM) or Y2 receptor-selective NPY agonists. Following treatment of cells with pertussis toxin, NPY produced only a brief decrease in [Ca2+]i fluctuations which rapidly recovered. 3. Perfusion of hippocampal neurones with 50 mM K+ produced a large rapid increase in [Ca2+]i. This increase was slightly reduced by NPY or by a combination of CNQX and APV. The effects of CNQX/APV occluded those of NPY. NPY had no effect on Ba2+ currents measured in hippocampal neurones under whole cell voltage-clamp even in the presence of intracellular GTP-gamma-S. On the other hand, Ba2+ currents were reduced by both Cd2+ (200 microM) and baclofen (10 microM). 4. Current clamp recordings from hippocampal neurones demonstrated the occurrence of spontaneous e.p.s.ps and action potential firing which were accompanied by increases in [Ca2+]i. This spontaneous activity and the accompanying [Ca2+]i signals were prevented by application of NPY (100 nM). When hippocampal neurones were induced to fire trains of action potentials in the absence of synaptic transmission, these were accompanied by an increase in cell soma [Ca2+]j. NPY (100 nM) had no effect on these cell soma [Ca2+], signals. NPY (100 nM) also had no effect on inward currents generated in hippocampal neurones by micropipette application of glutamate (50 microM).5. Thus, NPY is able to abolish excitatory neurotransmission in hippocampal cultures through a pertussis toxin-sensitive mechanism. However, no effect of NPY on Ca2+ influx into the cell soma of these hippocampal neurones could be discerned. These results are consistent with a localized presynaptic inhibitory effect of NPY on glutamate release in hippocampal neurones in culture.

Neuropeptide Y does not alter NMDA conductances in CA3 pyramidal neurons: a slice-patch study.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) has been reported to inhibit excitatory neurotransmission in hippocampus presynaptically. Recently, it has been suggested that NPY also potentiates N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-mediated excitatory responses in hippocampus, by action at a sigma or phencyclidine (PCP) binding site. We tested this hypothesis by examining the action of NPY on CA3 pyramidal cells using slice-patch voltage clamp recordings. NPY did not affect inward currents elicited by iontophoresis of NMDA onto the proximal dendrites of these cells under two different conditions, but did reduce the excitatory postsynaptic currents elicited by mossy fiber stimulation. NPY therefore does not appear to directly alter the postsynaptic NMDA response in CA3 cells.