Phoneutria nigriventer Spider Toxin PnTx2-1 (δ-Ctenitoxin-Pn1a) Is a Modulator of Sodium Channel Gating.

Spider venoms are complex mixtures of biologically active components with potentially interesting applications for drug discovery or for agricultural purposes. The spider Phoneutria nigriventer is responsible for a number of envenomations with sometimes severe clinical manifestations in humans. A more efficient treatment requires a comprehensive knowledge of the venom composition and of the action mechanism of the constituting components. PnTx2-1 (also called δ-ctenitoxin-Pn1a) is a 53-amino-acid-residue peptide isolated from the venom fraction PhTx2. Although PnTx2-1 is classified as a neurotoxin, its molecular target has remained unknown. This study describes the electrophysiological characterization of PnTx2-1 as a modulator of voltage-gated sodium channels. PnTx2-1 is investigated for its activity on seven mammalian NaV-channel isoforms, one insect NaV channel and one arachnid NaV channel. Furthermore, comparison of the activity of both PnTx2-1 and PnTx2-6 on NaV1.5 channels reveals that this family of Phoneutria toxins modulates the cardiac NaV channel in a bifunctional manner, resulting in an alteration of the inactivation process and a reduction of the sodium peak current.

δ-Ctenitoxin-Pn1a, a Peptide from Phoneutria nigriventer Spider Venom, Shows Antinociceptive Effect Involving Opioid and Cannabinoid Systems, in Rats.

PnTx4(6-1), henceforth renamed δ-Ctenitoxin-Pn1a (δ-CNTX-Pn1a), a peptide from Phoneutria nigriventer spider venom, initially described as an insect toxin, binds to site 3 of sodium channels in nerve cord synaptosomes and slows down sodium current inactivation in isolated axons in cockroaches (Periplaneta americana). δ-CNTX-Pn1a does not cause any apparent toxicity to mice, when intracerebroventricularly injected (30 µg). In this study, we evaluated the antinociceptive effect of δ-CNTX-Pn1a in three animal pain models and investigated its mechanism of action in acute pain. In the inflammatory pain model, induced by carrageenan, δ-CNTX-Pn1a restored the nociceptive threshold of rats, when intraplantarly injected, 2 h and 30 min after carrageenan administration. Concerning the neuropathic pain model, δ-CNTX-Pn1a, when intrathecally administered, reversed the hyperalgesia evoked by sciatic nerve constriction. In the acute pain model, induced by prostaglandin E2, intrathecal administration of δ-CNTX-Pn1a caused a dose-dependent antinociceptive effect. Using antagonists of the receptors, we showed that the antinociceptive effect of δ-CNTX-Pn1a involves both the cannabinoid system, through CB1 receptors, and the opioid system, through µ and δ receptors. Our data show, for the first time, that δ-Ctenitoxin-Pn1a is able to induce antinociception in inflammatory, neuropathic and acute pain models.

Antinociceptive effect of a novel armed spider peptide Tx3-5 in pathological pain models in mice.

The venom of the Brazilian armed spider Phoneutria nigriventer is a rich source of biologically active peptides that have potential as analgesic drugs. In this study, we investigated the analgesic and adverse effects of peptide 3-5 (Tx3-5), purified from P. nigriventer venom, in several mouse models of pain. Tx3-5 was administered by intrathecal injection to mice selected as models of postoperative (plantar incision), neuropathic (partial sciatic nerve ligation) and cancer-related pain (inoculation with melanoma cells) in animals that were either sensitive or tolerant to morphine. Intrathecal administration of Tx3-5 (3-300 fmol/site) in mice could either prevent or reverse postoperative nociception, with a 50 % inhibitory dose (ID50) of 16.6 (3.2-87.2) fmol/site and a maximum inhibition of 87 ± 10 % at a dose of 30 fmol/site. Its effect was prevented by the selective activator of L-type calcium channel Bay-K8644 (10 µg/site). Tx3-5 (30 fmol/site) also produced a partial antinociceptive effect in a neuropathic pain model (inhibition of 67 ± 10 %). Additionally, treatment with Tx3-5 (30 fmol/site) nearly abolished cancer-related nociception with similar efficacy in both morphine-sensitive and morphine-tolerant mice (96 ± 7 and 100 % inhibition, respectively). Notably, Tx3-5 did not produce visible adverse effects at doses that produced antinociception and presented a TD50 of 1125 (893-1418) fmol/site. Finally, Tx3-5 did not alter the normal mechanical or thermal sensitivity of the animals or cause immunogenicity. Our results suggest that Tx3-5 is a strong drug candidate for the treatment of painful conditions.

Differential effects of the recombinant toxin PnTx4(5-5) from the spider Phoneutria nigriventer on mammalian and insect sodium channels.

The toxin PnTx4(5-5) from the spider Phoneutria nigriventer is extremely toxic/lethal to insects but has no macroscopic behavioral effects observed in mice after intracerebral injection. Nevertheless, it was demonstrated that it inhibits the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) - subtype of glutamate receptors of cultured rat hippocampal neurons. PnTx4(5-5) has 63% identity to PnTx4(6-1), another insecticidal toxin from P. nigriventer, which can slow down the sodium current inactivation in insect central nervous system, but has no effect on Nav1.2 and Nav1.4 rat sodium channels. Here, we have cloned and heterologous expressed the toxin PnTx4(5-5) in Escherichia coli. The recombinant toxin rPnTx4(5-5) was tested on the sodium channel NavBg from the cockroach Blatella germanica and on mammalian sodium channels Nav1.2-1.6, all expressed in Xenopus leavis oocytes. We showed that the toxin has different affinity and mode of action on insect and mammalian sodium channels. The most remarkable effect was on NavBg, where rPnTx4(5-5) strongly slowed down channel inactivation (EC50 = 212.5 nM), and at 1 µM caused an increase on current peak amplitude of 105.2 ± 3.1%. Interestingly, the toxin also inhibited sodium current on all the mammalian channels tested, with the higher current inhibition on Nav1.3 (38.43 ± 8.04%, IC50 = 1.5 µM). Analysis of activation curves on Nav1.3 and Nav1.5 showed that the toxin shifts channel activation to more depolarized potentials, which can explain the sodium current inhibition. Furthermore, the toxin also slightly slowed down sodium inactivation on Nav1.3 and Nav1.6 channels. As far as we know, this is the first araneomorph toxin described which can shift the sodium channel activation to more depolarized potentials and also slows down channel inactivation.

The Phoneutria nigriventer spider toxin, PnTx4-5-5, promotes neuronal survival by blocking NMDA receptors.

Spider toxins are recognized as useful sources of bioactive substances, showing a wide range of pharmacological effects on neurotransmission. Several spider toxins have been identified biochemically and some of them are specific glutamate receptors antagonists. Previous data indicate that PnTx4-5-5, a toxin isolated from the spider Phoneutria nigriventer, inhibits the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), with little or no effect on AMPA, kainate or GABA receptors. In agreement with these results, our findings in this study show that PnTx4-5-5 reduces the amplitude of NMDAR-mediated EPSCs in hippocampal slices. It is well established that glutamate-mediated excitotoxic neuronal cell death occurs mainly via NMDAR activation. Thus, we decided to investigate whether PnTx4-5-5 would protect against various cell death insults. For that, we used primary-cultured corticostriatal neurons from wild type (WT) mice, as well as from a mouse model of Huntington's disease, BACHD. Our results showed that PnTx4-5-5 promotes neuroprotection of WT and BACHD neurons under the insult of high levels of glutamate. Moreover, the toxin is also able to protect WT neurons against amyloid ß (Aß) peptide toxicity. These results indicate that the toxin PnTx4-5-5 is a potential neuroprotective drug.

ß/δ-PrIT1, a highly insecticidal toxin from the venom of the Brazilian spider Phoneutria reidyi (F.O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1897).

A potent insecticidal toxin, ß/δ-PrIT1, molecular mass of 5598.86 [M+H](+), was characterized from Phoneutria reidyi spider venom. Its partial amino acid sequence showed high similarity with insecticidal spider toxins from the genus Phoneutria. ß/δ-PrIT1 was very toxic (LD50 = 4 nmol/g) to flies (Musca domestica), but not to mice (Mus musculus). Kinetic studies showed that (125)I-ß/δ-PrIT1 binds to two distinct sites in insect sodium channels, with close affinity (Kd1 = 34.7 pM and Kd2 = 35.1 pM). Its association is rather fast (t1/2(1) = 1.4 min, t1/2(2) = 8.5 min) and its dissociation is a slower process (t1/2(1) = 5.4 min, t1/2(2) = 32.8 min). On rat brain synaptosomes ß/δ-PrIT1 partially competed (∼30%) with the beta-toxin (125)I-CssIV, but did not compete with the alpha-toxin of reference (125)I-AaII, nor with the beta-toxin (125)I-TsVII. On cockroach nerve cord synaptosomes, ß/δ-PrIT1 did not compete with the anti-insect toxin (125)I-LqqIT1, but it competed (IC50 = 80 pM) with the "alpha-like" toxin (125)I-BomIV. In cockroach neurons, ß/δ-PrIT1 inhibited the inactivation of Nav-channels and it shifted the sodium channel activation to hyperpolarizing potentials. These results indicate two different binding sites for ß/δ-PrIT1, leading to two different pharmacological responses. ß/δ-PrIT1 is one of the most toxic spider toxins to insects without apparent toxicity to mammals, and provide new model for the development of insecticides.

Phα1ß toxin prevents capsaicin-induced nociceptive behavior and mechanical hypersensitivity without acting on TRPV1 channels.

Phα1ß toxin is a peptide purified from the venom of the armed spider Phoneutria nigriventer, with markedly antinociceptive action in models of acute and persistent pain in rats. Similarly to ziconotide, its analgesic action is related to inhibition of high voltage activated calcium channels with more selectivity for N-type. In this study we evaluated the effect of Phα1ß when injected peripherally or intrathecally in a rat model of spontaneous pain induced by capsaicin. We also investigated the effect of Phα1ß on Ca²âº transients in cultured dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons and HEK293 cells expressing the TRPV1 receptor. Intraplantar or intrathecal administered Phα1ß reduced both nocifensive behavior and mechanical hypersensitivity induced by capsaicin similarly to that observed with SB366791, a specific TRPV1 antagonist. Peripheral nifedipine and mibefradil did also decrease nociceptive behavior induced by intraplantar capsaicin. In contrast, ω-conotoxin MVIIA (a selective N-type Ca²âº channel blocker) was effective only when administered intrathecally. Phα1ß, MVIIA and SB366791 inhibited, with similar potency, the capsaicin-induced Ca²âº transients in DRG neurons. The simultaneous administration of Phα1ß and SB366791 inhibited the capsaicin-induced Ca²âº transients that were additive suggesting that they act through different targets. Moreover, Phα1ß did not inhibit capsaicin-activated currents in patch-clamp recordings of HEK293 cells that expressed TRPV1 receptors. Our results show that Phα1ß may be effective as a therapeutic strategy for pain and this effect is not related to the inhibition of TRPV1 receptors.

Nigriventrine: a low molecular mass neuroactive compound from the venom of the spider Phoneutria nigriventer.

Nigriventrine was isolated from the "armed" spider Phoneutria nigriventer, in which it constitutes about 0.4% of the total venom content. Its structure was determined to be [1,1'-(1-hydroxyhydrazine-1,2-diyl)bis(oxy)bis(4-hydroxy-2,6-dioxopiperidine-4 carboxylic acid)] by NMR, HR-ES/IMS and MS/MS methods. The intracerebroventricular application of nigriventrine in rat brain, followed by the detection of c-Fos protein expression, indicated that the compound was neuroactive in the motor cortex, sensory cortex, piriform cortex, median preoptic nucleus, dorsal endopiriform nucleus, lateral septal nucleus and hippocampus of rat brain. Nigriventrine causes convulsions in rats, even when peripherally applied.

The effect of spider toxin PhTx3-4, ω-conotoxins MVIIA and MVIIC on glutamate uptake and on capsaicin-induced glutamate release and [Ca2+]i in spinal cord synaptosomes.

In spinal cord synaptosomes, the spider toxin PhTx3-4 inhibited capsaicin-stimulated release of glutamate in both calcium-dependent and -independent manners. In contrast, the conus toxins, ω-conotoxin MVIIA and xconotoxin MVIIC, only inhibited calcium-dependent glutamate release. PhTx3-4, but not ω-conotoxin MVIIA or xconotoxin MVIIC, is able to inhibit the uptake of glutamate by synaptosomes, and this inhibition in turn leads to a decrease in the Ca(2+)-independent release of glutamate. No other polypeptide toxin so far described has this effect. PhTx3-4 and ω-conotoxins MVIIC and MVIIA are blockers of voltage-dependent calcium channels, and they significantly inhibited the capsaicin-induced rise of intracellular calcium [Ca(2+)](i) in spinal cord synaptosomes, which likely reflects calcium entry through voltage-gated calcium channels. The inhibition of the calcium-independent glutamate release by PhTx3-4 suggests a potential use of the toxin to block abnormal glutamate release in pathological conditions such as pain.

Antiarrhythmogenic effects of a neurotoxin from the spider Phoneutria nigriventer.

In this study, we evaluated the effects of PhKv, a 4584 Da peptide isolated from the spider Phoneutria nigriventer venom, in the isolated rat heart and in isolated ventricular myocytes. Ventricular arrhythmias were induced by occlusion of the left anterior descending coronary artery for 15 min followed by 30 min of reperfusion. Administration of native PhKv (240 nM) 1 min before or after reperfusion markedly reduced the duration of arrhythmias. This effect was blocked by atropine, thereby indicating the participation of muscarinic receptors in the antiarrhythmogenic effect of PhKv. Notably, recombinant PhKv (240 nM) was also efficient to attenuate the arrhythmias (3.8 ± 0.9 vs. 8.0 ± 1.2 arbitrary units in control group). Furthermore, PhKv induced a significant reduction in heart rate. This bradycardia was partially blunted by atropine and potentiated by pyridostigmine. To further evaluate the participation of acetylcholine on the PhKv effects, we examined the release of this neurotransmitter from neuromuscular junctions. It was found that Phkv (200 nM) significantly increased the release of acetylcholine in this preparation. Moreover, PhKv (250 nM) did not cause any significant change in action potential or Ca(2+) transient parameters in isolated cardiomyocytes. Altogether, these findings show an important acetylcholine-mediated antiarrhythmogenic effect of the spider PhKv toxin in isolated hearts.

Nitric oxide-induced vasorelaxation in response to PnTx2-6 toxin from Phoneutria nigriventer spider in rat cavernosal tissue.

INTRODUCTION: Priapism is one of several symptoms observed in accidental bites by the spider Phoneutria nigriventer. The venom of this spider is comprised of many toxins, and the majority has been shown to affect excitable ion channels, mainly sodium (Na(+) ) channels. It has been demonstrated that PnTx2-6, a peptide extracted from the venom of P. nigriventer, causes erection in anesthetized rats and mice. AIM: We investigated the mechanism by which PnTx2-6 evokes relaxation in rat corpus cavernosum. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: PnTx2-6 toxin potentiates nitric oxide (NO)-dependent cavernosal relaxation. METHODS: Rat cavernosal strips were incubated with bretylium (3 × 10(-5) M) and contracted with phenylephrine (PE; 10(-5) M). Relaxation responses were evoked by electrical field stimulation (EFS) or sodium nitroprusside (SNP) before and after 4 minutes of incubation with PnTx2-6 (10(-8) M). The effect of PnTx2-6 on relaxation induced by EFS was also tested in the presence of atropine (10(-6) M), a muscarinic receptor antagonist, N-type Ca(2+) channel blockers (ω-conotoxin GVIA, 10(-6) M) and sildenafil (3 × 10(-8) M). Technetium99m radiolabeled PnTx2-6 subcutaneous injection was administrated in the penis. RESULTS: Whereas relaxation induced by SNP was not affected by PnTx2-6, EFS-induced relaxation was significantly potentiated by this toxin as well as PnTx2-6 plus SNP. This potentiating effect was further increased by sildenafil, not altered by atropine, however was completely blocked by the N-type Ca(2+) channels. High concentrated levels of radiolabeled PnTx2-6 was specifically found in the cavernosum tissue, suggesting PnTx2-6 is an important toxin responsible for P. nigriventer spider accident-induced priapism. CONCLUSION: We show that PnTx2-6 slows Na(+) channels inactivation in nitrergic neurons, allowing Ca(2+) influx to facilitate NO/cGMP signalling, which promotes increased NO production. In addition, this relaxation effect is independent of phosphodiesterase enzyme type 5 inhibition. Our data displays PnTx2-6 as possible pharmacological tool to study alternative treatments for erectile dysfunction.

Plumieribetin, a fish lectin homologous to mannose-binding B-type lectins, inhibits the collagen-binding alpha1beta1 integrin.

Recently, a few fish proteins have been described with a high homology to B-type lectins of monocotyledonous plants. Because of their mannose binding activity, they have been ascribed a role in innate immunity. By screening various fish venoms for their integrin inhibitory activity, we isolated a homologous protein from the fin stings and skin mucus of the scorpionfish (Scorpaena plumieri). This protein inhibits alpha1beta1 integrin binding to basement membrane collagen IV. By protein chemical and spectroscopic means, we demonstrated that this fish protein, called plumieribetin, is a homotetramer and contains a high content of anti-parallel beta strands, similar to the mannose-binding monocot B-lectins. It lacks both N-linked glycoconjugates and common O-glycan motifs. Despite its B-lectin-like structure, plumieribetin binds to alpha1beta1 integrin irrespective of N-glycosylation, suggesting a direct protein-protein interaction. This interaction is independent of divalent cations. On the cellular level, plumieribetin failed to completely detach hepatocarcinoma HepG2 cells and primary arterial smooth muscle cells from the collagen IV fragment CB3. However, plumieribetin weakened the cell-collagen contacts, reduced cell spreading, and altered the actin cytoskeleton, after the compensating alpha2beta1 integrin was blocked. The integrin inhibiting effect of plumieribetin adds a new function to the B-lectin family, which is known for pathogen defense.

Structure and activity analysis of two spider toxins that alter sodium channel inactivation kinetics.

In this work, Phoneutria nigriventer toxins PnTx2-5 and PnTx2-6 were shown to markedly delay the fast inactivation kinetics of neuronal-type sodium channels. Furthermore, our data show that they have significant differences in their interaction with the channel. PnTx2-6 has an affinity 6 times higher than that of PnTx2-5, and its effects are not reversible within 10-15 min of washing. PnTx2-6 partially (59%) competes with the scorpion alpha-toxin AaHII, but not with the scorpion beta-toxin CssIV, thus suggesting a mode of action similar to that of site 3 toxins. However, PnTx2-6 is not removed by strong depolarizing pulses, as in the known site 3 toxins. We have also established the correct PnTx2-5 amino acid sequence and confirmed the sequence of PnTx2-6, in both cases establishing that the cysteines are in their oxidized form. A structural model of each toxin is proposed. They show structures with poor alpha-helix content. The model is supported by experimental and theoretical tests. A likely binding region on PnTx2-5 and PnTx2-6 is proposed on the basis of their different affinities and sequence differences.

Tx3-4 a toxin from the venom of spider Phoneutria nigriventer blocks calcium channels associated with exocytosis.

The purpose of the present work was to investigate the pharmacological action of a calcium channel-blocking toxin from the venom of the spider Phonetic nigriventer, Tx3-4 on calcium channels coupled to exocytosis of synaptic vesicles. Tx3-4 blocked KCl-induced exocytosis of synaptic vesicles with an IC50 of 1.1 nM. To investigate whether the target of Tx3-4 overlaps with known calcium channels that mediate calcium entry and exocytosis, we used omega-toxins that interact selectively with neuronal calcium channels. The results indicate that the main population of voltage-sensitive calcium channels altered by Tx3-4 is P/Q calcium channels. In conclusion, Tx3-4 is a potent inhibitor of calcium channels involved in the KCl-induced exocytosis of synaptic vesicles in brain cortical synaptosomes.

Neuroprotective effect on brain injury by neurotoxins from the spider Phoneutria nigriventer.

The role of calcium channels blockers in ischemic condition has been well documented. The PhTx3 neurotoxic fraction of the spider Phoneutria nigriventer venom is a broad-spectrum calcium channel blocker that inhibits glutamate release, calcium uptake and also glutamate uptake in synaptosomes. In the present study we describe the effect of PhTx3 (1.0 microg/mL), omega-conotoxin GVIA (1.0 micromol/L) and omega-conotoxin MVIIC (100 nmol/L) on neuroprotection of hippocampal slices and SN56 cells subjected to ischemia by oxygen deprivation and low glucose insult (ODLG). After the insult, cell viability in the slices and SN56 cells was assessed by confocal microscopy and epifluorescence, using live/dead kit containing calcein-AM and ethidium homodimer. Confocal images of CA1 region of the rat hippocampal slices subjected to ischemia insult and treated with omega-conotoxin GVIA, omega-conotoxin MVIIC and PhTx3 showed a percentage of dead cells of 68%, 54% and 18%, respectively. The SN56 cells subjected to ischemia were almost completely protected from damage by PhTx3 while with omega-conotoxin GVIA or omega-conotoxin MVIIC the cell protection was only partial. Thus, PhTx3 provided robust ischemic neuroprotection showing potential as a novel class of agents that targets multiple components and exerts neuroprotection in in vitro model of brain ischemia.

Phoneutria nigriventer toxin 1: a novel, state-dependent inhibitor of neuronal sodium channels that interacts with micro conotoxin binding sites.

A toxin was purified to homogeneity from the venom of the South American armed spider Phoneutria nigriventer and found to have a molecular mass of 8600 Da and a C-terminally amidated glycine residue. It appears to be identical to Toxin 1 (Tx1) isolated previously from this venom. Tx1 reversibly inhibited sodium currents in Chinese hamster ovary cells expressing recombinant sodium (Na(v)1.2) channels without affecting their fast biophysical properties. The kinetics of inhibition of peak sodium current varied with membrane potential, with on-rates increasing and off-rates decreasing with more depolarized holding potentials in the -100 to -50 mV range. Thus, the apparent affinity of Tx1 for the channel increases as the membrane is depolarized. A mono[(125)I]iodo-Tx1 derivative displayed high-affinity binding to a single class of sites (K(D) = 80 pM, B(max) = 0.43 pmol/mg protein) in rat brain membranes. Solubilized binding sites were immunoprecipitated by antibodies directed against a conserved motif in sodium channel alpha subunits. (125)I-Tx1 binding was competitively displaced by mu conotoxin GIIIB (IC(50) = 0.5 microM) but not by 1 microM tetrodotoxin. However, the inhibition of (125)I-Tx1 binding by mu conotoxin GIIIB was abrogated in the presence of tetrodotoxin (1 microM). Patch-clamp and binding data indicate that P. nigriventer Tx1 is a novel, state-dependent sodium-channel blocker that binds to a site in proximity to pharmacological site 1, overlapping mu conotoxin but not tetrodotoxin binding sites.

Inhibition of high voltage-activated calcium channels by spider toxin PnTx3-6.

Animal peptide toxins have become powerful tools to study structure-function relationships and physiological roles of voltage-activated Ca(2+) channels. In the present study, we investigated the effects of PnTx3-6, a neurotoxin purified from the venom of the spider Phoneutria nigriventer on cloned mammalian Ca(2+) channels expressed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells and endogenous Ca(2+) channels in N18 neuroblastoma cells. Whole-cell patch-clamp measurements indicate that PnTx3-6 reversibly inhibited L-(alpha(1C)/Ca(v)1.2), N-(alpha(1B)/Ca(v)2.2), P/Q-(alpha(1A)/Ca(v)2.1), and R-(alpha(1E)/Ca(v)2.3) type channels with varying potency (alpha(1B) > alpha(1E) > alpha(1A) > alpha(1C)) and IC(50) values of 122, 136, 263, and 607 nM, respectively. Inhibition occurred without alteration of the kinetics or the voltage dependence of the exogenously expressed Ca(2+) channels. In N18 cells, PnTx3-6 exhibited highest potency against N-type (conotoxin-GVIA-sensitive) current. In contrast to its effects on high voltage-activated Ca(2+) channels subtypes, application of 1 microM PnTx3-6 did not affect alpha(1G)/Ca(v)3.1 T-type Ca(2+) channels. Based on our study, we suggest that PnTx3-6 acts as a omega-toxin that targets high voltage-activated Ca(2+) channels, with a preference for the Ca(v)2 subfamily (N-, P/Q-, and R-types).

Biological properties of the venom from the scorpionfish (Scorpaena plumieri) and purification of a gelatinolytic protease.

In this work we describe some biological properties and a partial biochemical characterization of the Scorpanea plumieri crude venom. The fresh venom induced a decrease in blood pressure, cardiac and respiratory frequency, and exhibited hemorrhagic, hemolytic and proteolytic activities. The LD(50) (i.v. mouse) was 0.28 mg/kg. The pharmacological activities were found to be very unstable and this fact could be associated with proteolytic activity. Enzymes which hydrolyze casein and gelatin were found in this venom. A gelatinolytic protease (Sp-GP) was purified to homogeneity from S. plumieri venom through a combination of three chromatographic steps: gel filtration on Sephacryl S-200; ion exchange on DEAE-cellulose and reverse-phase/HPLC on a Vydac C4 column. The purified protease was approximately 2% of the whole protein in the soluble crude venom. The molecular mass of the Sp-GP scorpionfish gelatinase estimated by SDS-PAGE was around 80,000 Da under reducing conditions and 72,000 Da under non-reducing conditions. Attempts to determine the N-terminal sequence by automatic Edman degradation were unsuccessful, probably due to blockage of the N-terminal group. Gelatinolytic activity was optimal at pH 7-8. This is the first report of the isolation and characterization of a scorpionfish venom protease.

PnTx3-6 a spider neurotoxin inhibits K+-evoked increase in [Ca2+](i) and Ca2+-dependent glutamate release in synaptosomes.

The present experiments investigated the effect of a neurotoxin purified from the venom of the spider Phoneutria nigriventer. This toxic component, P. nigriventer toxin 3-6 (PnTx3-6), abolished Ca(2+)-dependent glutamate release with an IC(50) of 74.4nM but did not alter Ca(2+)-independent secretion of glutamate when brain cortical synaptosomes were depolarized by KCl (33mM). This effect was most likely due to interference with the entry of calcium through voltage activated calcium channels (VACC), reducing the increase in the intrasynaptosomal free calcium induced by membrane depolarization with an IC(50) of 9.5nM. We compared the alterations induced by PnTx3-6 with the actions of toxins known to block calcium channels coupled to exocytosis. Our results indicate that PnTx3-6 inhibition of glutamate release and intrasynaptosomal calcium involves P/Q type calcium channels and this toxin can be a valuable tool in the investigation of calcium channels.

PnTx4-3, a new insect toxin from Phoneutria nigriventer venom elicits the glutamate uptake inhibition exhibited by PhTx4 toxic fraction.

Several pools of neurotoxic peptides obtained from fractionated Phoneutria nigriventer venom induce different toxicological effects. One of them, PhTx4, is highly toxic towards insects and displays only a slight toxicity when injected in mice. Also, this fraction contains a class of peptides that are able to inhibit glutamate uptake in preparations of mammalian central nervous systems (CNS). In this work a new toxin called PnTx4-3 was isolated from the PhTx4 fraction by reverse phase and anion exchange steps using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Edman sequencing of PnTx4-3 revealed that it was a polypeptide of 48 amino acid residues, containing 10 cysteines cross-linked by five disulfide bridges. The molecular mass measured by ES-Q-TOF mass spectrometry was 5199.49+/-0.64 Da, which is very close to the calculated mass from amino acid sequence (5199.99 Da). This toxin induces immediate excitatory effects when injected intrathoracically in house flies and cockroaches. Intracerebroventricular injections of 30 microg of PnTx4-3 in mice resulted in no apparent signs of intoxication. In order to make an orthologous comparison, pharmacological characterisation were carried out in rat brain synaptosomes by using [3H]-L-glutamate, showed that the whole PhTx4 fraction as well as the pure toxins PnTx4-3, Tx4(6-1) and Tx4(5-5) obtained of this fraction, were able to inhibit the glutamate uptake in the micromolar concentration range. PnTx4-3 inhibits the glutamate uptake in a dose dependent manner, with an IC50 of approximately 1 microM. PnTx4-3 is highly homologous to the Tx4(6-1) and Tx4(5-5) toxins previously described from the same fraction.