The importance of spatial language for early numerical development in preschool: Going beyond verbal number skills.

Recent evidence suggests that spatial language in preschool positively affects the development of verbal number skills, as indexed by aggregated performances on counting and number naming tasks. We firstly aimed to specify whether spatial language (the knowledge of locative prepositions) significantly relates to both of these measures. In addition, we assessed whether the predictive value of spatial language extends beyond verbal number skills to numerical subdomains without explicit verbal component, such as number writing, symbolic magnitude classifications, ordinal judgments and numerosity comparisons. To determine the unique contributions of spatial language to these numerical skills, we controlled in our regression analyses for intrinsic and extrinsic spatial abilities, phonological awareness as well as age, socioeconomic status and home language. With respect to verbal number skills, it appeared that spatial language uniquely predicted forward and backward counting but not number naming, which was significantly affected only by phonological awareness. Regarding numerical tasks that do not contain explicit verbal components, spatial language did not relate to number writing or numerosity comparisons. Conversely, it explained unique variance in symbolic magnitude classifications and was the only predictor of ordinal judgments. These findings thus highlight the importance of spatial language for early numerical development beyond verbal number skills and suggest that the knowledge of spatial terms is especially relevant for processing cardinal and ordinal relations between symbolic numbers. Promoting spatial language in preschool might thus be an interesting avenue for fostering the acquisition of these symbolic numerical skills prior to formal schooling.

The importance of visuospatial abilities for verbal number skills in preschool: Adding spatial language to the equation.

Children's verbal number skills set the foundation for mathematical development. Therefore, it is central to understand their cognitive origins. Evidence suggests that preschool children rely on visuospatial abilities when solving counting and number naming tasks despite their predominantly verbal nature. We aimed to replicate these findings when controlling for verbal abilities and sociodemographic factors. Moreover, we further characterized the relation between visuospatial abilities and verbal number skills by examining the role of spatial language. Because spatial language encompasses the verbalization of spatial thinking, it is a key candidate supporting the interplay between visuospatial and verbal processes. Regression analysis indicated that both visuospatial and verbal abilities, as assessed by spatial perception and phonological awareness, respectively, uniquely predicted verbal number skills when controlling for their respective influences, age, gender, and socioeconomic status. This confirms the spatial grounding of verbal number skills. Interestingly, adding spatial language to the model abolished the predictive effects of visuospatial and verbal abilities, whose influences were completely mediated by spatial language. Verbal number skills thus concurrently depend on specifically those visuospatial and verbal processes jointly indexed through spatial language. The knowledge of spatial terms might promote verbal number skills by advancing the understanding of the spatial relations between numerical magnitudes on the mental number line. Promoting spatial language in preschool thus might be a successful avenue for stimulating mathematical development prior to formal schooling. Moreover, measures of spatial language could become an additional promising tool to screen preschool children for potential upcoming difficulties with mathematical learning.

Hierarchical Development of Early Visual-Spatial Abilities - A Taxonomy Based Assessment Using the MaGrid App.

Visual-spatial abilities (VSA) are considered a building block of early numerical development. They are intuitively acquired in early childhood and differentiate in further development. However, when children enter school, there already are considerable individual differences in children's visual-spatial and numerical abilities. To better understand this diversity, it is necessary to empirically evaluate the development as well as the latent structure of early VSA as proposed by the 2 by 2 taxonomy of Newcombe and Shipley (2015). In the present study, we report on a tablet-based assessment of VSA using the digital application (app) MaGrid in kindergarten children aged 4-6 years. We investigated whether the visual-spatial tasks implemented in MaGrid are sensitive to replicate previously observed age differences in VSA and thus a hierarchical development of VSA. Additionally, we evaluated whether the selected tasks conform to the taxonomy of VSA by Newcombe and Shipley (2015) applying a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) approach. Our results indicated that the hierarchical development of VSA can be measured using MaGrid. Furthermore, the CFA substantiated the hypothesized factor structure of VSA in line with the dimensions proposed in the taxonomy of Newcombe and Shipley (2015). Taken together, the present results advance our knowledge to the (hierarchical) development as well as the latent structure of early VSA in kindergarten children.

Visuo-spatial abilities are key for young children's verbal number skills.

Children's development of verbal number skills (i.e., counting abilities and knowledge of the number names) presents a milestone in mathematical development. Different factors such as visuo-spatial and verbal abilities have been discussed as contributing to the development of these foundational skills. To understand the cognitive nature of verbal number skills in young children, the current study assessed the relation of preschoolers' verbal and visuo-spatial abilities to their verbal number skills. In total, 141 children aged 5 or 6 years participated in the current study. Verbal number skills were regressed on vocabulary, phonological awareness and visuo-spatial abilities, and verbal and visuo-spatial working memory in a structural equation model. Only visuo-spatial abilities emerged as a significant predictor of verbal number skills in the estimated model. Our results suggest that visuo-spatial abilities contribute to a larger extent to children's verbal number skills than verbal abilities. From a theoretical point of view, these results suggest a visuo-spatial, rather than a verbal, grounding of verbal number skills. These results are potentially informative for the conception of early mathematics assessments and interventions.